Group Members

–Syed Owais Naseem

–Maria Iqbal
–Syed Asad Hussain Rizvi
–Maha Farooq
–Noor-ul-Ain
–Zakariya
 Cognition

Cognition can be defined as

"the act or process of knowing in the

broadest sense; specifically, an
intellectual process by which knowledge
is gained from perception or ideas”
(Webster's Dictionary).
The Cognitive System of Thinking
and Processing
Prepared By…………

Syed Owais Naseem

 The Cognitive System
There are a variety of perspectives and
emphases within cognitive psychology that are
currently impacting educators' thinking about
how to improve the teaching/learning process.

Focuses on the study of the

structure and function of
Information
mental processing within
Processing
specific contexts,
environments, or ecologies.
 The Cognitive System

There are a variety of perspectives and emphases

within cognitive psychology that are
currently impacting educators' thinking about
how to improve the teaching/learning process.

Taxonomy Method for classifying

of the the variety of educational
Cognitive objectives related to what and
Domain how we know
 The Cognitive System

There are a variety of perspectives and

emphases within cognitive psychology that are
currently impacting educators' thinking about
how to improve the teaching/learning process.

Focus on how human beings

Intelligence learn from experience, reason
well, remember important
information, and adapt to the
environment
 The Cognitive System

There are a variety of perspectives and

emphases within cognitive psychology that are
currently impacting educators' thinking about
how to improve the teaching/learning process.

Describes the process and

Piaget’s
stages by which human beings
Theory of
develop the capacity to engage
Cognitive
in abstract symbolic thought,
Development
one of the distinguishing
features of human activity
 The Cognitive System

There are a variety of perspectives and

emphases within cognitive psychology that are
currently impacting educators' thinking about
how to improve the teaching/learning process.

Often contrasted with the

Piaget’s
views of
Theory of
Cognitive Jerome Bruner (focus on
Development structure and function of
children’s thinking)
 The Cognitive System

There are a variety of perspectives and

emphases within cognitive psychology that are
currently impacting educators' thinking about
how to improve the teaching/learning process.

Often contrasted with the

Piaget’s views of
Theory of
Cognitive Lev Vygotsky (emphasis on
Development the social/cultural influences
on children's thinking).
 The Cognitive System

Several different areas of inquiry provide an

opportunity to test out these different theories.

Study of the process of

Critical applying our cognitive
Thinking processes to evaluating
arguments (propositions) and
making decisions
 The Cognitive System

Several different areas of inquiry provide an

opportunity to test out these different theories.

Creative Study of how we generate

Thinking ideas and alternatives that
don't fit the "norm"
 The Cognitive System

Several different areas of inquiry provide an

opportunity to test out these different theories.

Creative and critical thinking are often

contrasted as the difference between

Thinking pattern that

Convergent we use when we want to
thinking narrow down and
evaluate ideas
 The Cognitive System

Several different areas of inquiry provide an

opportunity to test out these different theories.

Creative and critical thinking are often

contrasted as the difference between

Divergent Thinking pattern we use

thinking when we want to expand
or develop new ideas
Presented by
Zakaria
Introduction
 Cognitive psychology: the study of the mental
processes by which information from the
environment is modified, made meaningful,
stored, retrieved, used, and communicated to
others.
 Life depends largely on the proper operation of
both thinking and language skills.
 Two major topics:
What thought is and its functions and components
How language is acquired and used
The Circle of Thought
 Five core functions of human thinking—
describe, elaborate, decide, plan, and guide
action
Ex: exam scope- important parts- what to study-
when to study- action

Thought is an information-processing system

Thinking- the manipulation of mental

representations
THINKING STRATEGIES
 Information-processing system combines, transforms, &
elaborates mental representation.
 Reasoning is the process by which we generate
arguments, evaluate them, and reach conclusions.
 Formal reasoning- mental procedures that yield a valid
conclusion. (ex: volume of a thing)
Confirmation bias- pay more attention to consistent
evidence
 Informal reasoning- inducing a conclusion on the basis
of specific facts or examples. (ex: dogs have 4 legs)
Heuristics- a time saving mental shortcut used in
reasoning (ex: where to find your wallet?)
PROBLEM SOLVING
Strategies
 Incubation- setting a problem aside for a while and
thinking about other things.
 Means-end analysis- identify sub goals to solve the main
problem step-by-step.
Ex: writing assignment: outline- data- draft- review
 Working Backward- start with the solution and determine
what you need to generate solution.
Ex: finish assignment in 1 month- what to do in
4th ,3rd ,2nd ,1st week
 Using Analogies- find similarities between the present
problem and other problems you have encountered
before.
Obstacles to Problem
Solving
 Multiple Hypotheses. Testing the incorrect hypothesis first
when more than one hypothesis exists can delay problem
solving.
 Mental Sets. The tendency for old patterns of problem
solving to persist, even when better strategies might be
available.
Functional fixedness, the inability to use objects in new
ways, can also impede problem solving.
 Ignoring Negative Evidence. Do not use the lack of
evidence as often as we should when testing a hypothesis.
 The Confirmation Bias. Once we choose a hypothesis, we
tend to interpret available information as confirming it.
DECISION MAKING
 Evaluating Options
Multiattribute decision making involves choosing
between options that have both positive and negative
features, or attributes.
Ex: further study or working
 Comparing Attributes is difficult because of limited storage
capacity of working memory.
 Utility is the subjective, personal value of each attribute.
 Estimating Probabilities- consider the probabilities and the
expected value of certain outcomes.
Ex: admission test for Harvard U vs. job interview
LANGUAGE
 A language has two basic elements: symbols (words) and
grammar (rules of combination).
 The Elements of Language:
 Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound with meaning.
○ Ex: T E A vs. S E A
 Morphemes are the smallest unit of language with meaning.
Most of them are words. (ex: man)
 Words are made up of one or more morphemes.
○ Ex: fireman
 Rules of syntax determine the ways in which words are
combined to form sentences. (Ex: noun, verb, adjective)
 Semantics are rules that govern the meanings of words and
sentences.
Surface Structure and Deep
Structure
Surface structure: The order in which words
are arranged in sentences.
Deep structure: An abstract representation of
the underlying meanings of a given sentence.
Ex: The movie is very artistic.
How Is Language Acquired?
 Conditioning, imitation, and rules do not fully explain
the development of language in children. However,
when adults provide correct revisions of a child’s
conversation, the learning process is enhanced.
 Biological Bases for Language Acquisition.
Noam Chomsky suggests that children possess an
innate universal grammar that helps them learn the
complexities of language.
Specific language impairment runs in family
 Bilingualism- Children in a bilingual environment prior
to the end of the critical period show enhanced
language performance.
CONTINUED BY: SYED ASAD HUSSAIN
RIZVI

SUB TOPIC : COGNITION AND LEARNING

 COGNITIVE LEARNING

• Cognitive learning is the result of listening,

watching, touching or experiencing."

• Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of

knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive
processes — ;the procedures we have for
manipulating information 'in our heads'.
Cognitive processes include creating mental
representations of physical objects and events,
and other forms of information processing.
 How is cognitive learning
done?
• In cognitive learning, the individual learns by
listening, watching, touching, reading, or
experiencing and then processing and
remembering the information.

Cognitive learning might seem to be passive

learning, because there is no motor
movement. However, the learner is quite
active, in a cognitive way, in processing and
remembering newly incoming information.
 LATENT LEARNING

• Latent Learning: The type of

learning that occurs, but you
don't really see it (it's not
exhibited) until there is some
reinforcement or incentive to
demonstrate it.
 EXAMPLE
• Tolman and C.H. Honzik
(1930), placed three groups
of rats in mazes and
observed their behavior.

• The rats in Group 1 always

found food at the end of the
maze.

• Group 2 never found food.

Group 3 found no food for 10
days, but then received food
on the eleventh.
 CONTINUED
The Group 1 rats quickly learned to rush to
the end of the maze to find their food.
Group 2 rats did not learn to go to the end.
Group 3 acted as the Group 2 rats until food
was introduced on Day 11.
Then they quickly
learned to run to the end of the maze and did
as well as the Group 1 rats by the next day.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

The process of
acquiring information
by observing others.

For example:
learning to tie your shoe by
observing another individual
perform the task would be an
example of observational
learning.
 Four-step Pattern
Bandura formulated his findings in a four-step pattern which combines a cognitive view and an operant view of learning.
•

Step 1 – Attention
•Something is noticed in
the environment.

•Observers must pay

attention to learn.
 Four-step Pattern

•Step 2 –
Retention
– Observer must
recognize and
remember the
behavior.

– Process depends on
observers ability to
code information.
 34

Four-step Pattern

•Step 3 –
Reproduction

– What observer noticed is

duplicated by an action.

– Observer must be
physically and
intellectually capable of
producing action.
 35

Four-step Pattern

•Step 4 –
Motivation

–Observer performs
act.

–Presence of
reinforcement or
punishment.
 CONTINUED
• Observational learning can be seen daily in the
workplace from communication, to daily
duties.

• Co-workers can learn how to effectively

communicate with each other on a daily basis.
Some employees may have the experience of
watching another co-worker do something and
then follow their footsteps.
The more a person learns and practices,
the more they will remember.
 Television – Observational
Model

• It is believed that
television plays a part
in behavior modeling.
Today, there is so much
graphic violence
depicted in what we
watch (i.e. movies,
television shows, video
games, etc.).
 Television – Observational
Model
• Commercials are an example
of social learning.
Commercials we see
everyday try influence us to
buy or try certain products
making promises such as you
will loose weight, your hair
will be shiny and full, etc.
They use celebrities to
promote the product hoping
to make it more appealing
and believable.
 CONCLUSION
When we apply cognitive
approach to learning and
teaching we focus on the
understanding of information
and concepts, this approach is
applied in every field of life
whether it is about day to day
activities or complicated
business dealings.
Continued
By:
Noor-ul-Ain
 PROBLEM
SOLVING
&
COGNITION
DEFINITION:
A problem is a
gap between an
actual and
desired situation.
General Perception:
A problem is an
obstacle which makes it
difficult to achieve a
desired goal, objective
or purpose.

Critical Perception:
A problem is a
challenge and an
opportunity – a chance
to make progress.
 PROBLEM

WELL-DEFINED ILL-DEFINED
Trying to find a solution to a
problem is known as
problem solving.
It is a mental process
It is a higher-order cognitive process
It requires the modulation and
control of more routine or
fundamental skills
STEPS PREPARAT ION

Understanding
&

FOR Diagnosing
Problems

PRODUCTION

Generating
Solutions

PROBLE
M
JUDGEMENT

Evaluating
Solutions
1 PREPARAT ION:
Understanding& Diagnosing
Problems
Kind of problem:
Arrangement Problems
Problems of Inducing Structure
Transformation Problems
Representing and organizing the
problem
2 PRODUCT ION:
Generating Solution
Algorithms Approach
Rule or Formula
Guaranteed Solution
Heuristic Approach
Shortcut
No Guaranteed Solution
Means and Analysis
Forming Sub Goals
Working Backward

Kohler’s Solution
Insightful
Trial and Error
Prior Experience

3 JUDGMENT:
Evaluating Solution
 BARRIERS TO
PROBLEM SOLVING

• MENTAL SET
• FUNCTIONAL FIXATION
• CONRFIRMATION BIAS

• EMOTIONAL BARRIER
• CULTURAL BARRIER
• PERCEPTUAL BARRIER
PROBLEM SOLVING & CREATIVITY

• CONVERGENT THINKING
Unusual responses to problems

• DIVERGENT THINKING
responses based on knowledge and
logic
In business, a problem is a
difference between actual
conditions and those that are
required or desired. Problem
solving is higher-order cognitive
process that requires the
modulation and control of more
routine or fundamental skills.
Theoretically if we rely on
appropriate heuristics and valid
COGNITI
ON
AND
DECISIO
N

MAKING
 DECISION MAKING

• Decision making can be regarded

as the mental processes
(cognitive process) resulting in
the selection of a course of action
among several alternatives. Every
decision making process
produces a final choice The
output can be an action or an
opinion of choice.
A Systematic Approach to
Decision Making:

A logical and systematic decision-making

process helps you:

• Address the critical elements that result in a

good decision

• Eliminate the chances of missing important

factors.
 STEPS INVOLVED IN EFFECTIVE
DECISION MAKING

There are six steps to making an effective decision:

1.Create a constructive environment.

2.Generate good alternatives.

3.Explore these alternatives.

4.Choose the best alternative. 

5.Check your decision. 

6.communicate your decision, and take action

1

CREATE A CONSTRUCTIVE
ENVIRONMENT
 CREATE A CONSTRUCTIVE
ENVIRONMENT
To create a constructive environment for
successful decision making, make sure you do the
following:

•Establish the objective 

•Agree on the process ---- vroom -yetton

-jago model

•Involve the right people 

•Allow opinions to be heard --- stepladder

technique
The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Decision
Model
Deciding How
to Decide
You have to adapt your leadership
style to the situation and decision
you are facing.

 Autocratic styles

highly participative styles

and various combinations of the

two
STEPLADDER TECHNIQUE

Developed by
Steven Rogelberg,
Janet Barnes-Farrell
and Charles Lowe in 1992,
It
encourages all members to
contribute on an individual
level BEFORE being
influenced by anyone else.
2

GENERATE
GOOD
ALTERNATIV
ES
 Generate good
alternatives

This step is still critical to making

an effective decision. The more
good options you consider, the
more comprehensive your final
decision will be.
•Brainstorming is probably
the most popular method of
generating ideas. 
 3

EXPLORE THE ALTERNATIVES

 EXPLORE
THE
ALTERNATIV
ES

When you're satisfied that you have a good selection

of realistic alternatives, then you'll need to evaluate
the feasibility, risks, and implications of each choice
x Thinking Hats
oking at a Decision from All Points of Vie
White Hat: With this thinking hat, you
focus on the data available.

Red Hat: Wearing the red hat, you look

at the decision using intuition, gut
reaction, and emotion.

Black Hat: When using black hat

thinking, look at things pessimistically,
cautiously and defensively.
 CONTINUED
Yellow Hat: The yellow hat helps
you to think positively. It is the
optimistic viewpoint that helps
you to see all the benefits of the
decision

Green Hat: The Green Hat

stands for creativity.

Blue Hat: The Blue Hat stands

for process control.
4

Choose best alternative

•Use Paired Comparison Analysis to
determine the relative importance of
various factors. This helps you compare
unlike factors, and decide which ones
should carry the most weight in your
decision. 
5

Check Your
Decision
•The first part of this is an intuitive step,
which involves testing the decisions you've
made against your own experience.

A second part involves BLINDSPOT

ANALYSIS to review whether common
decision-making problems like over-
confidence, escalating commitment, or group
think may have undermined the decision-
making process. 
6
COMMUNICATE YOUR

DECISION

AND MOVE TO
Communicate Your Decision, and
Move to Action!

Once you've made your decision, it's important to

explain it to those affected by it, and involved in
implementing it. Talk about why you chose the
alternative you did. The more information you
provide about risks and projected benefits, the
more likely people are to support the decision.
 
Importance of decision
making in businesses
Businesses are highly
interdependent on each other, their
suppliers and their customers.
Decisions are not taken in isolation.
The effects of any decision will
depend critically on the reactions of
other groups in the market. There
fore the decisions have to be taken
systematically and cautiously, as far
as possible.
 CONCLUSION
Good decision making is an essential
skill for career success generally, and
effective leadership particularly.

However, if you make

poor decisions, your team risks failure
and your time as a leader will, most
likely, be brutally short.