SRM University

1st SEM Applied Chemistry

Technology Of Water
Water:

Water is a chemical substance with the

chemical formula H2O.
Existance on Earth
1. Solid state-ice,
2. Gaseous state (water vapor or steam)
3. Liquid
Water is not only universal solvent but also an
essential material for engineering applications.
Prime factor in development
Water on Earth moves continually through a cycle of
evaporation or transpiration (evapotranspiration),

Evotranspiration Process

 Evapotranspiration (ET) is a term used to describe the

sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the
Earth's land surface to atmosphere.
Evaporation :The movement of water to the air from
sources such as the soil, canopy interception, and water
bodies.
Transpiration :The movement of water within a plant
and the subsequent loss of water as vapor through
stomata in its leaves.
An element (such as a tree) that contributes to
evapotranspiration can be called an evapotranspirator.

Sources of Water
The source of water are listed under two categories
1. Surface Water
2. Underground Water
A.Surface Waters:
1. Rain Water
2. River Water
3. Lake Water
4. Sea water
B. Underground Water:
1. Spring
2. Well water

Types Of Impurities
1. Dissolved Impurities:
a) Inorganic salts e.g
sulphates and chlorides of calcium,
Magnesium, Iron
b) gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen , oxygen,
hydrogen sulphides
c) organic salts
2. Suspended Impurities:
a) Clay
b) mud
c) Vegetable and animal matters

3. Colloidal Impurities:
a) fine size like silica and alumina, organic wastes etc.
- These are soluble materials, other than gases
- cannot be removed by conventional filters
- referred as TDS which stands for total dissolved solids.

4. Bacterial Impurities:
a) Bacteria, Germs, Pathogens, Microbes, Viruses,
Parasites
- include
- algae, beneficial bacteria that decompose
wastes
- harmful bacteria such as those that cause
cholera.

 Effects of Impurities:
a) colour of surface water- dissolved organic matters
b) Taste and Odour- formation of compounds
c) Turbidity- suspended Impurities
d) Pathogenicity- micro organisms
Hardness of Water
Characteristics of water which prevent the Leather
Formation.
due to presence of:- salts like bicarbonates, sulphates,
chlorides of mg and other
metals
Units of Hardness:
1) ppm
2) mg/l
3) Cl
4) Fr
Relation - 1ppm = 1mg/l = 0.07 Cl = 0.1 Fr

Hardness Table
Water
Classification

Hardness, mg/L

Hardness.
Grains/Gal

Sodium Added
mg/L

Soft

0 to 49

0 to 2.9

0 to 22.5

Medium Hard

50 to 149

2.9 to 8.7

23 to 68.5

Hard

150 to 249

8.7 to 14.6

69 to 115

Very Hard

250 to 299

14.6 to 173

115 to 138

Extremely Hard

300 and up

17.5 and up

138 and up

mg/L = milligrams/Liter

 Types of Hardness
1) Temporary:- 0r Carbonate Hardness
Water that contains bicarbonate of
calcium and magnesium or of both

removed by boiling
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 +
H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 Mg (OH) 2 + 2CO2
2)Permanent :- or Non- Carbonate Hardness
Contains chlorides or sulphates of
calcium or magnesium or of both
Can not be removed by boiling
CaCl2 Ca+2+ 2Cl-1
MgSO4 Mg+2+ SO4-2

Disadvantages of Hard Water

(A) Domestic Uses:
1. Washing
2. Bathing
3. Drinking
4. Cooking
C17 H35 COO Na + H2O C17 H35 COOH + NAOH
C17 H35 COOH + C17 H35 COO Na Lather
C17 H35 COO Na + CaSO4 (C17 H35 COO) 2 Ca + Na2SO2
(in water)
(White Scum)
(B) Industrial Uses:
1. Boiler Feed: should not contain nitrates- scale and sludges
2. Paper Mill: should not contain iron and lime- destroy resin of
soap
3. Sugar industries: Sulphates and Alkaline carbonatesDeliquescent
4. Dyeing Industries: should not contain iron and hardness
5. Laundries: should be soft

Estimation Of Hardness
1. EDTA Method
2. O.Herners
Method
1. EDTA Method:
Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid
-OOOCH2
CH 2COONCH2.CH2N
-OOOCH2
CH 2COO Estimation is by titration method at pH 10
Using Indicator Eriochrome Black-T
Method:
1. Take 50 ml water in coinical flask
2. Add buffer and few drops of EBT-T
3. Titrate against EDTA
4. Red colour change to steel blue/violet

O.Herners Method (0r) Alkali Titration

Method
Bicarbonates of Ca and Mg makes water alkaline and
can react with HCl
Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2HCl MgCl2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O
Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 decomposes into insoluble
carbonates on boiling the water.
For Temporary Hardness:
1)50ml sample water in conical flask
2)2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator
3)Titrated against N/50 HCl
4)Change colour from yellow to orange
5)Take 100 ml of same sample of water
6)Boil until 1/5th volume
7)Make them again 100 ml Distilled water
8)Take 50ml and perform again the above steps

For Permanent Hardness

Caused by Chlorides and Sulphates of Calcium and
Magnesium
Can be determined by using Na2CO3 and HCl.
CaCl2+Na2CO3CaCO3 + 2NaCl
CaSO4+Na2CO3CaCO3 + 2NaSO4
Method:
1. 50 ml hard water + 50 ml Na2CO3 solution
2. Boiled and Evaporated to dryness.
3. Chlorides of Ca and Mg ppt. as carbonates of Ca and
Mg.
4. Extract residue with distilled water
5. Add few drops of methyl orange as indicator
6. Titrate against N/50 HCl
7. End point changes colour from yellow to orange.

Determination of Alkalinity in water

It is due to 1) OH- and CO3-2 2) HCO3 Titrate against phenolphthalein and methyl orange
Method
1. 100 ml sample water in conical flask
2. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator
3. Titrate against N/50 H2SO4
4. Continue till pink colour disappear
5. To the same solution add 2-3 drops of methyl orange
6. Titrate till yellow colour changes to red
Reaction Involved:
OH-+H+ H2O
(using
phenolphthalein)
CO3-2+ H+ HCO3(using
phenolphthalein)
HCO3-+H+ H2O+ CO2 (using methyl
orange)

Scale and Sludge

Troubles met in boiler which are used in steam production.
Scale:
When water is evaporated in boilers to produce steam
continuously
the concentration of the slats present in the water increases
progressely
As the concentration reaches a saturation point the salts are
thrown
over the inner surface of the boiler.
Sludge:
During boiling salts form precipitate of loose slimy form.
Magnesium Chloride
Decomposes to form hydroxide and hydrochloric acids. The
former will produce hard scale and the later lowers the pH.
MgCl2 + 2H2O 2HCl + Mg(OH)2
Magnesium Sulphate
Forms a hard scale on the heating surfaces

Calcium Sulphate
Forms a hard scale on the heating surfaces
Calcium Bi-carbonate
Decomposes at a low temperature when CO2 is liberated.
Remaining Calcium carbonate deposits on the heating
surface as a soft scale.
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

Disadvantages of Scale
Formation
1. Wastage of fuel
Efficiency
3. Lowering of boiler safety
5. Corrosion

2. Decreases in
4. Danger of Explosion

Removal of Scales
1. By scrapping
2. Giving thermal shocks
3. Dissolving by using chemicals e.g CaCO 3 by 5-10% HCl
4. Adding complexing agents e.g CaSO 4 by EDTA
5. Blow down Process
Disadvantages of Sludge Formation
1. Chocking of pipes
2. Low supply of heat
3. Wastage of fuel
4. Get entrapped in scales

Prevention of Sludge Formation

1. Blow down Process: Withdrawing portion of sludge
containing water and replacing with fresh water
2. Softening of water
Method of Preventing Scale
Formation
1.External Treatment:
Treatment of water before
entering into boiler
- Removal of Ca, Mg and Silica
2. Internal Treatment:
Addition of chemicals directly to
water in boiler.
- Scale forming substances produces loose precipitate
- Blow down process
- Adding complexing agents: to form soluble complex

Caustic embrittlement:
It is the phenomenon in which the
material of
aboilerbecomesbrittledue to the accumulation of caustic
substances.
Sodium carbonate is used insofteningof water by lime
soda process, due to this some sodium carbonate maybe
left behind in the water.
Na2CO3+H2O2NaOH+CO2
As Conc. of NaOH increases, water flows into minute hair
cracks.
Water get evaporated and NaOH increases further and react
with iron of boiler, hence cause Embrittlement.
Prevention:
1. Addition of sodium sulphate or sodium phosphate. Which
will block hair-cracks.
2. Addition of tannin and lignin- blocks the cracks.
3. Excess of Na2SO4 is avoided else it will form CaSO4

Priming and Foaming

Priming:- Carry over of varying amounts of water in the
steam e.g.
(Foam, mist)
- Leads to deposits of salt crystals
- Lowers the energy efficiency
Normal Bubble
Causes:a) Presence of suspended impurities and dissolved salts
b)High steam velocity and sudden boiling
c) High water levels
d)Faulty boiler design
Preventions:
a) Good boiler design
b)Avoid rapid changes in temp.
c) Maintaining low water level
Carry Over
d)Fitting mechanical steam purifier

Foaming: Formation of small bubbles and forth on the surface of

water
- Caused by high conc. of any solids in water
Causes:
a) Difference b/w conc. of solute and suspended matters.
b)Surface tension lowering substances
c) Oil and grease
Prevention:
a) Adding antifoaming agents e.g. castor oil
b)Removing oily particles using silicic acid and sodium
alluminate.
Boiler Corrosion: Decay of material by chemically or
electrochemically
Causes:
a) Presence of dissolved gases e.g. O 2 , CO2
b)Caustic Embrittlement
c) Acid formation due to Hydrolysis
d)Presence of free acids.

Treatment Methods of Water

A. Internal Treatment
B. External Treatment
Internal Treatment Method
1. Phosphate Conditioning:
- Small amount of phosphate ions are added to precipitate Ca ions.
- Chosen depending on the pH conditions of boiler.
2. Colloidal Conditioning:
- Using kerosine, tannin, starch etc
- Get coated over the scale forming particles
- Removed by Blow down Process
3. Carbonate conditioning:
- Na2CO3 is added to precipitate Ca salts as CaCO3
- Removed by Blow down Process
- Used in low pressure boilers

 Calgon Conditioning:
- Scale forming salts are converted into soluble
complexes.
- E.g. Sodium Hexameta Phosphate (Na2PO3)6 is added
reacts with Ca and forms Calcium Hexameta Phosphate
(Ca2PO3)6
- Prevents Scale formation
Radioactive conditioning:
- Adding radioactive tablets
- Emits radiation energy which prevents Scale formation

Electrical Conditioning:
Mercury bulbs placed in boiler
Emits electrical discharge
Prevents Scale formation

External Treatment Method (or) Water softening

Method
Removal of hardness causing substances from water
Methods:
1. Zeolite process
2. Ion Exchange Process
3. Mixed Bed deionization
Zeolite (or Permutit) Process: are Hydrated sodium
alumino Silicate
Na2O. Al2O3 X SiO2 Y H 2O
(X= 2-10,
Y= 2-6 )
Natural Zeolites:
1. Natrolite
- Na2O. Al2O3 4SiO2 .2H 2O
2. Laumontite - CaO. Al2O3 4SiO2 .4H 2O
3. Harmotome - (BaO.K2O). Al2O3 5SiO2 .5H 2O
- Capable of exchanging its Na ions.

A. Natural Zeolite:Derived from green sand by washing,

Heating, treating with NaOH.
Non porous in nature.
B. Synthetic Zeolite: Prepared from solution of Sodium
Silicate and AlOH
Higher exchange capacity and porous in Nature.
Process:

 Consist of Steel Tank

Having Thick Layer of Zeolite
When water pass through it hardness causing ions (Ca,
Mg) are retained by Zeolite.
Chemical Reaction:
Ca(HCO3) 2 + Na2 Ze CaZe + 2 NaHCO3
CaSO4 + Na2Ze
CaZe + Na2SO4
MgCl 2 + Na2Ze
MgZe + 2NaCl
Mg (NO3)2 + Na2Ze
MgZe + 2NaNO3
Exchange of Na ions continues until Na ions are
exhausted

Regeneration:
CaZe + 2NaCl
Na 2Ze + CaCl 2
MgZe + 2NaCl
Na 2Ze + MgCl 2
CaCl 2 and MgCl 2 led to drain and Na2Ze can be reused.

Advantages
1. Hardness can be completely removed
2. Process can be made automatically
3. Easy operation. No experts required
4. Less time and sludge
5. Small area requires
Disadvantages
1. Only Ca+ and Mg+ ions can be removed
2. Large amount of Na ions present in treated water.
3. Leaves other acids which causes corrosion
4. Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ containing water can not be treated
because Fe and Mn Zeolite can not be regenerated
5. Water should be free from suspended impurities to
prevent clogging on Zeolite beds.
6. Treated water contains more dissolved solids.

B. Ion Exchange (or) Demineralization (or)

Deionization Process.
mineral ions are removed
physical process which uses specially-manufactured ion
exchange resins which bind to and filter out the mineral
salts from water.

Advantage:
1. Produces soft water
2. Can treat highly acidic or alkaline water
3. Regeneration of ion resins are possible
4. Maintenance cost is low
Disadvantage:
1. Cost of equipment is high
2. Highly turbid water can not be treated
3. Expensive chemicals are required.

3. Mixed Bed Deionization

This equipment consist of single column which contain
mixture of cation and anion exchangers.
When water pass through bed, it comes in contact
several times with both exchangers
Resultant water contain lesser amount of salt.
Regeneration: by back wash
a) anions with dil. NaOH
b) cations with dil. H2SO4
Advantages:
More convenient and more effective
Disadvantages:
Regeneration cost is more
Equipment cost is high

Desalination
Processes that remove some amount ofsaltand other
minerals from
Water.
Brackish Water: contain 3.5 % salts & salty taste. Unfit
for drinking
Separation of salts from water by evaporation followed
by condensation.
Freezing method can also be employed
Commonly used methods:
1. Electrodialysis
2. Reverse Osmosis

A. Electrodialysis:
Method of separation of ions from salt water by passing
electric current.
Semi permeable membranes are placed

Consist of three compartments containing

1. Sea Water 2. Pair of electrodes 3. Semi permeable
membrane

 As current applied Na ions moves towards cathode and

Cl moves towards anode
As result brine concentration decreases in the middle
compartment.
Pure water is removed from the central compartment.
Conc. Brines are replaced by fresh brine water.
Much more effective separation Ion selective
membranes are used

Reverse Osmosis (or) Super Filtration (or) Hyper

Filtration
Movement of solvent molecule from concentrated side to
diluted side.
If only pressure higher than that of osmotic pressure
Membranes:
Cellulose Acetate, Polymide,
Polymethylmethaacrylate
Thickness:
0.0005 to 0.0000002 m
Advantages:
1. Removes both ionic and non ionic and colloidal matters
2. Maintenance cost is low
3. Membrane replacement can be done with in few minutes.

Domestic Treatment of Water

A. Removal of Suspended Impurities
B. Removal of Micro organisms
Removal of Suspended Impurities
1. Screening:
Floating matters are removed by passing
through screens.
2. Sedimentation:
- Big tanks are used
- Left undisturbed
- Water settle down due to gravity.
- Supernatent water is drawn with the help of pump
- Takes 2-6 hours
3. Filtration:
Sand Filters are used.

4. Sedimentation with Coagulation:

- Addition of Chemicals (Coagulants) to water. E.g. Alum
(Potash Alum or Ferric Alum), Sodium Aluminate
(NaAlO2) ,Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4)
- On addition they form an insoluble gelatinous, flocculent
precipitate which absorbs very fine particles and form
bigger flocs.
- Due to this tiny particles which have no charge also
come closers.

B. Removal of Micro Organisms

1. Boiling
2. Adding Bleaching Powder:
- 1 kg for 1000 KL
- Mixed and Allowed to stand several hours
CaOCl2 + H2O Ca (OH)2 + Cl2
Cl2 + HO
HOCl (Hypochlorous Acid)
+ HCl
HOCl + Germs Germs Killed
HOCl
HCl+ [O] (Nascent Oxygen)
[O] + Germs
Germs Killed
Disadvantages:
- Excess addition give bad odour and taste.
- Introduces Ca into water and makes it hard
- Disintegrates on storing

3. By Chlorination:
- Chlorine produces Hypochlorous Acid.
- Hypochlorous acid is strong Germicide.
Cl2 + HO
HOCl (Hypochlorous Acid) +
HCl
HOCl + Germs Germs Killed
- Cl may be used in Gaseous or Concentrated Form.
- Filtered water with 0.3-0.5 ppm Cl is sufficient.
- Lower pH is favourable (5-6.5)
Advantages:
1. Effective and Economical
2. Stable and does not deteriorate on storage
3. No impurities such as salts are introduced.
4. Can be used at high as well as low temp.

Disadvantages
1. Excess chlorination produces unpleasant taste. (0.1-0.2 ppm
only)
2. More effective at low pH.
Breakpoint Chlorination:
- The addition of chlorine in such amount that it Oxidizes the
organic matter, reducing matters and free ammonia in raw
water. And leaves free residual Cl which disinfect Water.
Advantages
1. Oxidizes organic compounds, reducing substances and
ammonia.
2. Removes colour and taste.
3. Kill germs.
- Excess of Declorination can be done by
1. Filtering through bed of molecular carbon
2. Addition of SO2 and Na2SO3
SO2 + Cl2 + 2H 2O
H 2SO4+ 2HCl
Na2SO3 + Cl2 + H 2O Na2SO4 + 2HCl

4. By chloramine:
- Using 2 : 3 ratio of Cl3 and NH3
ClNH2+ H2O
HOCl + NH3
HOCl + Germs Germs Killed
5. By Ozonization:
- Ozone and raw water are allowed to come in contact with
each other
- 10 15 min. in 2-8 ppm
3O2
2O3 (Highly Unstable)
O3
O2 + [O]
[O] + Germs
Germs Killed
Advantage: 1. Leaves no residue. Because of unstability
2. Removes odour, colour, Taste.
Disadvantage: Very Expensive
6. By Ultraviolet Radiation:
- Using Electric mercury vapour lamp

International Standards for water

- Depends on purpose
- Standards Set By:
1. WHO- World Health Organization
2. USPHD- United States Health Service
3. ICMR- Indian Council of Medical Research
Water should be free from
1. Turbidity, Colour
2. Taste, Odour
3. Microbes
4. Toxicity (Organic and Inorganic Metals)