TIM B ER

Timber is another name for wood

whether still standing in the form of

trees or felled and turned into boards
for construction. Some people may
refer to it a lumber, or differentiate
between unprocessed wood and
lumber as cut wood packaged for
commercial sale. The timber industry
around the world is huge, providing
wood for a variety of products from
paper to particle board.

Facts about w ood /tim ber/lum ber:

1. The oldest material used by humans

for construction after stone.

2. A god heat and electrical conductor.
3. It is renewable and biodegradable
resource.
4. Natural material and is available in
limited amount.

Classifi
cation oftim ber based on m ode ofgrow th:

1. Exogenous trees -

these trees grow outward

by adding consecutive ring every year called
annual rings. Hence, it is possible to find the
age of timber by counting these rings. These
trees are mostly used for engineering
purpose.
2. Endogenous trees - these trees grow
inwards. Fresh fibrous mass is the inner most
portion. Most kind of these trees are not
useful for structural works. This group
confined largely to tropical or semi-tropical
region.

D ivision ofexogenous trees:

Softwoods have narrow needle-like

leaves that remain on the re
throughout the year.
Characteristics of softwoods:
Annual rings are seen distinctly
Color is light
Light weight
Poor in fire resistance
Resinous of structure

H ardw oods -have broad leaves that

they lose in the fallor w inter.
Characteristics:
Annual rings are indistinct
Color is dark
Heavier
Greater fire resistance
Close grained structure

Note: The hardwood and softwood are

unrelated to the actual hardness or
strength of the wood.

Section ofexogenous tree:

1. Pith inner most and oldest part of the tree

2. Heart wood dead part of the wood;
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

consists of annual rings

Sapwood: less sharply divided and are light
in color ; known as alburnum.
Cambium layer if exposed the tree dies
Inner bark inner skin protecting cambium
Outer bark outer skin ; contains tissues
and cracks
Medullary rays hold annular rings

G eneralproperties ofw ood

Color a darker color in wood indicates greater durability

Odor it is present only on freshly cut trees
Hardness is the ability of wood to withstand indentations caused by harder

bodies
Density densest woods are generally the strongest
Grain depending on the actual alignment, the grain may be straight, spiral,
interlocked, wavy or irregular
Texture in hardwoods, the texture depends upon the size and distribution
vessels and rays. In softwoods, it is determined by the size and distribution of
tracheid.
Luster is the ability to reflect light beam pointedly
Workability the relative case in which wood is shaped, cut and fastened
together than the others
Warping is the general term used to describe an variation from a true surface
Moisture content is a percentage of the mass of water over the mass of wood
fre in a piece of timber
Specify gravity - is the ratio found by dividing the weight of a substance by the
weight of an equal volume of pure water

M echanicalproperties ofw ood:

Tensile strength timber is stronger in tension along the grain but its quite

difficult to determine this because of the difficulties in conducting test.

Compressive strength the strength along the grain important for
columns, props and post.
Shear strength important in the case of the beam and slabs
Bending strength or flexural strength this refers as the strength of the
timber as a beam.
Cleavability high resistance for cleavage is important for nailing and
screwing while low splitting strength is important for used as
Brittleness is used to describe the property of suffering little
deformations before breaking
Torsion strength is used to determine the torsion strength of the timber
and the specimen is loaded up to failure
Hardness is important in case of timber for paving blocks flooring
bearings and other similar purposes
Stiffness - this property is important to determine the deflection of a
timber under a load

Defects in Tim ber

Internal Defects - due to factors

affecting the growing tissue of the

tree
External defects due to the
external agents or subsequent
treatment of timber

InternalorNaturalDefects ofw ood

Knots are portion of branches that have been enveloped into the trunk

of the tree during growth. They reduce the wood strength because they
interrupt the fiber directions in a wood member.
Reaction wood is abnormal wood that forms on the compression or
tension side of leaning and cooked trees as a response to the trees own
dead weight. Many properties of reaction wood differ from those of
straight wood. Reaction wood should not be used in structural members.
Cross grain -is a generic term describing wood fibers (cell walls) that are
not aligned with the members major axis. Cross grain can occur during
growth or because of taper cuts of lumber.
Shakes are cracks that are parallel to the annual growth ring, and they
can develop in a standing tree
Resin pocket due to excessive accumulation of resin. Resin patches are
found in wood
Constriction due to climber - this defect occurs due to climbing plants.
These climbing plants do considerable damage to the tree by binding
round the stem.

M oisture content in w ood

The moisture content (MC) of wood varies among

species, and even in a single species it depends on
locations in the tree trunk. The moisture content in
green wood can be anywhere from 30% to more than
200% (based on the oven-dry weight).
1. Fiber Saturation
Moisture in green wood that exists in the cell cavities is
called free water. Moisture that exists in the cell walls is
called bound water. There is about five times as much
free water as there is bound water. The moisture content
when the free water has dissipated is called the fiber
saturation point (FSP). The FSP varies with species but it
is typically about 30%. It is only below the FSP that
wood starts to shrink

2. Equilibrium Moisture
Wood continues to dry by losing bound water until the
moisture in the wood has come to a balance with that in
the surrounding atmosphere. The moisture content at
this point is known as the equilibrium moisture content
(EMC). The EMC in the United States ranges from 5% to
25%, with 10% to 15% the more common range. The
EMC can be 5% or lower at a humidity of 30% or less
with temperatures greater than 100F, and it can be
25% or higher at a humidity of 98% with temperatures
less than 100F(Wood Handbook,1987).
For most buildings, the MC at the time of construction is
higher than the EMC ad gradually the MC reaches the
EMC during service.

2. Green (wet), dry and seasoning

The term green wood can mean the freshcut state of lumber. The terms green and
dry are also used in the National Design
Specification (NDS) tables for design and
values. The term dry in the tables refers
to areas where moisture content in the
wood will not exceed 19% in sawn lumber
and 16% in glued laminated timber for an
extended time period.

Seasoning of wood
usually refers to a controlled
drying process by air or kiln drying

M ethods ofseasoning tim ber

 Natural Seasoning consist of

stoking the timber air and allowing it

to dry naturally, the water being
expelled gradually and shrinkage
occurring informally. This process
takes from two to four years to
complete.

2. Artificial/kiln seasoning - a very large

proportion of commercial timber is now
dried by the kiln methods more particularly
in the case of hardwoods. Advantages of
kiln drying lie in the rapidity of the process
and controlling various factors influencing
the correct seasoning results.
Kiln - a thermally insulated chamber, a

type of oven that produces temperatures

sufficient to complete some process such
as hardening, drying, or chemical changes.
Various industries and trades use kilns to
harden objects.

 Three factors controlling seasoning

process:
Temperature of the process
Moisture
Air circulation

 Seasoning procedures:
Heating the wood and kilns
Drying
Final equalization the moisture content

between the pieces

Conditioning: equalization of the moisture
content in the pieces
Cooling
Reconditioning of wood deformed by
collapse

 Objectives of seasoning:
To reduce movement of timber to reduce the

tendency to split
To make i immune from attack by insects
To increase strength, durability, workability
and resilience
To make the timber receptive to finish like
preservatives, paints, and varnish
To reduce weight and minimize cost of
transportation
To make the timber burn readily, if used as fuel

 Seasoning characteristics of Timber:

Class A (Highly refractory woods) - these

timbers are slow and difficult to dry if the final

product is to be free from defects(particularly
cracks and splits)
Class B (Moderately refractory woods) these
timbers show a moderate tendency to crack and
split during seasoning
Class C (Non-refractory woods) these timbers
can be rapidly seasoned to be free from defects
even by applying high temperatures in industrial
kiln.

 Defects of timber due to seasoning

Bow a curvation of the timber in the direction of its length
Cup a curvature in the transverse direction of the timber
Twist a spiral distortion along the length of the timber
Spring a curvature of the timber in its own plane
Case hardening it is due to the unequal drying of the

exterior surfaces under compression and the interior surfaces

under tension due to rapid drying
Split separation of the fibers along the grain and extends
from one end of the plank to the other
Honey combing separation of the fibers in the interior due to
drying stresses
Collapse the cells of timber are flattened due to excessive
shrinkage

 Defects of timber due to manufacturing or use:

Chipped or torn grain - a defect caused by the

breaking away of timber below the surface of the

dressing by the action of planning
Chip mark indentation on the finished surface of
the timber cause by the chips or other small
pieces of the timber being carried around on the
planning knife edge
Wane the original round surface of a tree which
remains on finished plank
Boxed heart the pith at the center fully enclosed
within one piece in th process of conversion

 Decay or rot of timber -

is usually
caused by the presence of sap or by
the alternate dry and wet condition
of the timber

 Forms of decay:
Wet rot this is decomposition of sap and fibers of the living tree set up by the access of

water through wounds in the barks

Dry rot this is the decomposition of converted timber induced by the commonest and most
destructive dry rot fungi or weeping fungus
Due to fungal attack- a fungus starts its life as a tiny seed or spore, one of millions produced
at the fruiting stage
Fungi are system plant organisms which live on and attack timber causes it to rot or decay.
Fungi can only exist in the following condition
Air for their respiration
Moisture
Suitable temperature
Food supplies
Due to insects damage to timber by insects is quite considerable particularly in warm
country
Types of insect:
Termites
Beetles
Boarers
Preservation of wood or decay- resistant treatment

 To minimize the effects of decay, creosote,

creosote solutions, penta-chlorophenol, and

waterborne preservatives are commonly used.
Decay resistant treatment have little effect on
the strength of treated wood
Some preservatives may react with other
materials used in construction such as metals,
roofing bitumen, and compatibility should be
ascertained
Arsenic-free/ chromium-free preservatives are
available for environmentally sensitive
applications

 Wood preservation (Types)

Charring in which the wood is held for a few minutes in a fire

until the surface is evenly and completely converted into

charcoal. This will effect only in well-seasoned woods
Creosote in which the ends of timbers are placed in the
creosote until they have drawn up into their pores a sufficient
quantity and as long as it gives a perceptible odor to the wood,
fungi and insects, including white ants leave it alone
Wood tar and coal tar qui frequently used in America as
preserving coats for wood. They are to be recommended as
cheap and effective, and especially adopted to out-of-door
structures
Paint have been used to a great extent for preserving wood,
they are desirable only for those portions of wooden structures
not in contact with the soil. In any event they need renewal every
two or three years to continue their preservative action.

 Characteristics of good preservative:

It should be strongly toxic to insets and fungi
It should penetrate readily into the timber
It should not be soluble in water nor should it change in composition

under ordinary climatic condition

It should cover a large surface area with comparatively small
quantity of preservative
It should have no destructive influence on the strength of the timber
It should be harmless to human beings
It should not render the timber treated with it more inflammable.
It should not be non-corrosive to metals
It should be pleasant in color and give attractive appearance to the
wood work
It should be highly resistant to water and dampness
It should be economical and available readily

 Properties of wood as building

material:
Strong material
Durable
Light in weight
Ease of working and fastening
With artistic and natural beauty

 Advantages of wood as building material:

In proportion to weight, wood is stronger than other material
Wood is easily worked out with tools and fabricated into many shapes,

sizes and design

Wood is excellent non-conductor of heat. It is warm in winter and cool in
summer.
With artistic grains and appearance conductive to architectural designs,
adding beauty and attractive furniture and interior finishes.
It is abundant in many shapes, colour, sizes, and as renewable resources.
The use of timber connector in wide trusses and spans generally permit
the use of small wood member.
In terms of value, wood does not deteriorate if properly handled and
protected.
It is not readily affected by changing styles.
It has prompt resale value.
Neither heat nor cold nor climate changes would seriously affect the
physical properties of wood.

 Additional facts about timber:

The lightest and softest wood in the

world is balsa. Its average specific

gravity averages 0.16.
The heaviest and the hardest wood in the
world is snake wood. Its specific gravity
averages 1.30.
The whitest wood in the world is holly.
The blackest wood in the world is Gabon
Ebony.

Board foot- is actually a measure of

volume of timber/lumber. By definition a
board foot is one sq.ft. and one inch thick.

To calculate bd.ft. using the ff. Formula

Board foot =
or
Board foot =