ATOMIC STRUCTURE

AND BONDING
Chemical change; elements, compounds and mixtures, Atomic
structure, dual nature of electron, concept of atomic orbitals, Pauli`s
Exclusion principle, Concept of chemical bonding: covalent, ionic,
metallic, hydrogen bond, Van der Waal`s, Hybridization and shapes
of molecule, electronic structure and periodic table.

Classification of
Matter
Matter is a
substance that
occupy space
and has mass.
Matter can be
classified into
i. Pure Matter
ii. Impure
Matter

Elements

Element consist of unique type of atoms.

Element cannot be further broken into
simple substance by any chemical or
physical means.
There are 118 elements known.
Each element is given a unique chemical
symbol (one or two letters).
Elements are building blocks of matter.

Compounds

Most elements react to form compounds.

Example, H2O
The proportions of elements in compounds are
the same irrespective of how the compound
was formed.
The composition of a pure compound is always
the same.

Mixtures

Heterogeneous mixtures are not uniform

throughout.
Homogeneous mixtures are uniform
throughout.
Homogeneous mixtures are called
solutions.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPOUNDS &

MIXTURES

S. No.

2
3

MIXTURE

COMPOUNDS

The substance are mixed

Substance chemically react to
together, no reaction take form a new compound.
place.
Composition can be varied Composition of new compound is
always same.
Properties of the
The properties of new compound
constituents present,
are very different from those of
remain same.
the element in it.
Can be separated by
physical method such as
filtration, distillation etc.

Cannot easily be separated into

its elements.

Atomic Structure
Structure of an atom
Positively charged nucleus (very dense, protons and neutrons)
and small (10-15 m)
Negatively charged electrons are in a cloud (10-10 m) around
nucleus

Diameter is about 2 10-10 m (200 picometers (pm)) [the

unit angstrom () is 10-10 m = 100 pm]

Dual Nature Of Electron

(1) In 1924, the French physicist, Louis de Broglie suggested that if light has electron,
behaves both as a material particle and as a wave.
(2) This presented a new wave mechanical theory of matter. According to this theory,
small particles like electrons when in motion possess wave properties.
(3) According to de-broglie, the wavelength associated with a particle of mass m,
moving with velocity v is given by the relation = h/mv where h = Plancks constant.
(4) This can be derived as follows according to Plancks equation, E = hv = hc /
v=c/(energy of photon (on the basis of Einsteins mass energy relationship) E = mc 2,
Equating both hc/ = mc2 or = h/mc which is same as de-Broglie relation. ( mc = p)

Atomic Number and Atomic

Mass
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons
in the atom's nucleus
The mass number (A) is the number of protons
plus neutrons
All the atoms of a given element have the same
atomic number
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that
have different numbers of neutrons and
therefore different mass numbers
The atomic mass (atomic weight) of an element
is the weighted average mass in atomic mass
units (amu) of an elements naturally occurring
isotopes

Atomic Structure:
Orbitals
Quantum mechanics: describes electron
energies and locations by a wave equation
Wave function solution of wave equation
Each wave function is an orbital,

A plot of 2 describes where electron most

likely to be
Electron cloud has no specific boundary so we
show most probable area

Shapes of Atomic Orbitals for

Electrons
Four different kinds of orbitals for electrons
based on those derived for a hydrogen atom
Denoted s, p, d, and f
s and p orbitals most important in organic and
biological chemistry
s orbitals: spherical, nucleus at center
p orbitals: dumbbell-shaped, nucleus at middle
d orbitals: elongated dumbbell-shaped,
nucleus at center

Atomic Structure: Electron

Configurations

Ground-state electron configuration (lowest

energy arrangement) of an atom lists orbitals
occupied by its electrons. Rules:
1. Lowest-energy orbitals fill first: 1s 2s 2p 3s
3p 4s 3d (Aufbau (build-up) principle)
2. Electrons act as if they were spinning around an
axis. Electron spin can have only two orientations, up
and down . Only two electrons can occupy an
orbital, and they must be of opposite spin (Pauli
exclusion principle) to have unique wave equations
3. If two or more empty orbitals of equal energy are
available, electrons occupy each with spins parallel
until all orbitals have one electron (Hund's rule).

CHEMICAL
BONDING
IONIC BONDS
COVALENT BONDS
HYDROGEN
BONDS
METALLIC BONDS

IONic Bonding
electrons are transferred between
valence shells of atoms
ionic compounds are
NOT MOLECULES
made of ions

ioniccompoundsarecalledSaltsor
Crystals

IONic bonding
Always formed between metals and
non-metals
[METALS ]

Lost e-

[NON-METALS ]

Gained e-

Properties of Ionic
Compounds
SALTS
Crystals

hard solid @ 22oC

high mp temperatures
nonconductors of electricity in
solid phase
good conductors in liquid phase or
dissolved in water (aq)

Covalent Bonding
molecules

Pairs of e- are shared

between nonmetal atoms
electronegativity difference
< 2.0

Properties of Covalent
Compounds
Covalent
bonding

Low m.p. temp and b.p.

temps
relatively soft solids as
compared to ionic
compounds
nonconductors of

Types of Covalent

Bonds
NON-Polar bonds
Electrons shared evenly in the
bond
E-neg difference is zero
Between identical atoms
Diatomic molecules

Types of Covalent

Bonds
Polar bond
Electrons unevenly shared
E-neg difference greater than
zero but less than 2.0
closer to 2.0
character

more polar
more ionic

Metallic Bonds
How atoms are held
together in the solid.
Metals hold onto there
valence electrons very
weakly.
Think of them as positive
ions floating in a sea of

Sea of Electrons
Electrons are free to move
through the solid.
Metals conduct electricity.

+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + +

van der Waals

Non-polar molecules can exist in
liquid and solid phases
because van der Waals forces keep the
molecules attracted to each other

Exist between CO2, CH4, CCl4, CF4,

diatomics and monoatomics

van der Waals

periodicity
increase with molecular mass.
increase with closer distance
between molecules
Decreases when particles are farther
away

Hydrogen Bonding
Strong polar
attraction
Like magnets

Occurs ONLY
between H of
one molecule
and N, O, F of
H bond
another

H is shared between
2 atoms of OXYGEN or
2 atoms of NITROGEN or
2 atoms of FLUORINE
Of
2
different
molecules

Why does H bonding

occur?
Nitrogen, Oxygen and Fluorine
small atoms with strong nuclear
charges
powerful atoms

very high electronegativities

Development of Chemical Bonding Theo

Atoms form bonds because the compound that results is
more stable than the separate atoms
Ionic bonds in salts form as a result of electron transfers
Organic compounds have covalent bonds from sharing
electrons (G. N. Lewis, 1916)
Lewis structures (electron dot) show valence electrons
of an atom as dots
Hydrogen has one dot, representing its 1s electron
Carbon has four dots (2s2 2p2)
Kekule structures (line-bond structures) have a line
drawn between two atoms indicating a 2 electron
covalent bond.
Stable molecule results at completed shell, octet (eight
dots) for main-group atoms (two for hydrogen)

 Atoms with one, two, or three valence

electrons form one, two, or three bonds.
Atoms with four or more valence electrons
form as many bonds as they need electrons to
fill the s and p levels of their valence shells to
reach a stable octet.
Carbon has four valence electrons (2s2 2p2),
forming four bonds (CH4).

Non-bonding electrons
Valence electrons not used in bonding are
called nonbonding electrons, or lone-pair
electrons
Nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH3)
Shares six valence electrons in three
covalent bonds and remaining two
valence electrons are nonbonding lone
pair

33

The Nature of Chemical Bonds:

Valence Bond Theory

Covalent bond forms when two atoms approach each

other closely so that a singly occupied orbital on one
atom overlaps a singly occupied orbital on the other atom
Two models to describe covalent bonding.

Valence bond theory, Molecular orbital theory

Valence Bond Theory:
Electrons are paired in the overlapping orbitals and are
attracted to nuclei of both atoms
HH bond results from the overlap of two singly
occupied hydrogen 1s orbitals
H-H bond is cylindrically symmetrical, sigma () bond

sp3 Orbitals and the Structure

of Methane
Carbon has 4 valence electrons (2s2 2p2)
In CH4, all CH bonds are identical (tetrahedral)
sp3 hybrid orbitals: s orbital and three p
orbitals combine to form four equivalent,
unsymmetrical, tetrahedral orbitals (sppp =
sp3), Pauling (1931)

The Structure of
Methane
sp3 orbitals on C overlap with 1s orbitals on 4
H atoms to form four identical C-H bonds
Each CH bond has a strength of 436 (438)
kJ/mol and length of 109 pm
Bond angle: each HCH is 109.5, the
tetrahedral angle.

sp3 Orbitals and the Structure

of Ethane
Two Cs bond to each other by overlap of an
sp3 orbital from each
Three sp3 orbitals on each C overlap with H 1s
orbitals to form six CH bonds
CH bond strength in ethane 423 kJ/mol
CC bond is 154 pm long and strength is 376
kJ/mol
All bond angles of ethane are tetrahedral

sp2 Orbitals and the Structure of

Ethylene
sp2 hybrid orbitals: 2s orbital combines with
two 2p orbitals, giving 3 orbitals (spp = sp2).
This results in a double bond.
sp2 orbitals are in a plane with120 angles
Remaining p orbital is perpendicular to the
plane

Bonds From sp2 Hybrid

Orbitals
Two sp2-hybridized orbitals overlap to form a bond
p orbitals overlap side-to-side to formation a pi () bond
sp2sp2 bond and 2p2p bond result in sharing four
electrons and formation of C-C double bond
Electrons in the bond are centered between nuclei
Electrons in the bond occupy regions are on either side
of a line between nuclei

Structure of Ethylene
H atoms form bonds with four sp2 orbitals
HCH and HCC bond angles of about 120
CC double bond in ethylene shorter and
stronger than single bond in ethane
Ethylene C=C bond length 134 pm (CC 154
pm)

sp Orbitals and the Structure of

Acetylene
C-C a triple bond sharing six electrons
Carbon 2s orbital hybridizes with a single p orbital
giving two sp hybrids
two p orbitals remain unchanged
sp orbitals are linear, 180 apart on x-axis
Two p orbitals are perpendicular on the y-axis and
the z-axis

Orbitals of Acetylene
Two sp hybrid orbitals from each C form spsp
bond
pz orbitals from each C form a pzpz bond by
sideways overlap and py orbitals overlap
similarly

42

Bonding in Acetylene
Sharing of six electrons forms C C
Two sp orbitals form bonds with hydrogens

Hybridization of Nitrogen and

Oxygen
Elements other than C can have hybridized
orbitals
HNH bond angle in ammonia (NH3) 107.3
C-N-H bond angle is 110.3
Ns orbitals (sppp) hybridize to form four sp3
orbitals
One sp3 orbital is occupied by two nonbonding
electrons, and three sp3 orbitals have one
electron each, forming bonds to H and CH3.

I am Dmitri Mendeleev!

I made the PERIODIC TABLE !

What is the PERIODIC TABLE?

o Shows all known elements in
the universe.
o Organizes the elements by
chemical properties.

The Periodic Table

A map of the building block of matter.

1
IA
1

1.00797

2
3
4
5
6
7

PeriodicTable

2
IIA

13
IIIA

Li

Be

Na

Mg

3
IIIB

Ca

Sc

Ti

Rb

Sr

Ba

Ra

6.939 9.0122
11
12
22.9898 24.305
19
20

21

4
IVB

5
VB

22

23

6
VIB
24

7
VIIB
25

26

9
VIIIB
27

10

28

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

Zr

Nb

Mo

Tc

Ru

Rh

Pd

La

Hf

Ta

Re

Ir

Pt

Ac

Ku

39.102 40.08 44.956 47.90 50.942 51.996 54.9380 55.847 58.9332 58.71
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
85.47
55

Cs

87.62 88.905 91.22 92.906 95.94

56
57
72
73
74

[99]
75

132.905 137.34 138.91 178.49 180.948 183.85 186.2

87
88
89
104
105
106
107

Fr

[223]

[226]

[227]

11
IB
29

Cu

63.54
47

Ag

12
IIB
30

Zn

65.37
48

Cd

14
IVA
6

15
VA
7

16
VIA
8

17
VIIA
9

18
VIIIA
2

He

4.0026
10

Ne

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

10.811 12.0112 14.0067 15.9994 18.9984 20.179

13
14
15
16
17
18
26.9815 28.086 30.9738 32.064 35.453 39.948
31
32
33
34
35
36

Ga

65.37
49

In

72.59 74.9216 78.96 79.909 83.80

50
51
52
53
54

101.07 102.905 106.4 107.870 112.40 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.904 131.30
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86

Os

190.2
108

Au

Hg

Tl

192.2 195.09 196.967 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.980 [210]

109

[210]

[222]

[260]

http://www.chemsoc.org/viselements/pages/periodic_table.html

How do you read the

PERIODIC TABLE?

Reading the Periodic Table: Classification

Nonmetals, Metals, Metalloids, Noble gases

Groups/Families

Periods

Each horizontal row of

Columns of elements are
elements is called a
called groups or families.
period.
Elements in each family have The elements in a
similar but not identical
period are not alike in
properties.
properties.
For example, lithium (Li),
In fact, the properties
sodium (Na), potassium (K),
change greatly across
and other members of family
even given row.
IA are all soft, white, shiny
metals.
The first element in a
All elements in a family have
period is always an
the same number of valence
extremely active solid.
electrons.
The last element in a
period, is always an
inactive gas.

Periodic Table: electron behavior

The periodic table can be classified by the behavior of their electrons

West(South)

METALS
Alkali
Alkaline
Transition
Theseelements
tendtogiveup
e andform
CATIONS

Midplains

METALLOID

Theseelements
willgiveupeor
accepte

East(North)

NONMETALS
Noblegas
Halogens
Calcogens
Theseelements
tendtoaccept
e andform
ANIONS

1
IA
1

18
VIIIA
2
IIA

13
IIIA

3
IIIB

4
IVB

5
VB

6
VIB

7
VIIB

9
VIIIB

10

11
IB

12
IIB

14
IVA

15
VA

16
VIA

17
VIIA

2. Trend in Atomic Radius

Atomic Radius:
The size of at atomic specie as determine by the
boundaries of the valence e-.
Largest atomic
species are those found in the SW corner since
these atoms have the largest n, but the smallest
Zeff.

3. Trend in Ionization
Potential
Ionization potential:
The energy required to remove the valence electron
from an atomic specie. Largest toward NE corner of
PT since these atoms hold on to their valence e- the
tightest.

4. Trend in Electron
Affinity
Electron Affinity:
The energy release when an electron is added to an
atom. Most favorable toward NE corner of PT since
these atoms have a great affinity for e-.

Summary of Trend
Periodic Table and Periodic Trends

1. Electron Configuration3.IonizationEnergy:LargesttowardNEofPT
4.ElectronAffinity:MostfavorableNEofPT

2.AtomicRadius:LargesttowardSWcornerofPT

Summary
Periodic Table: Map of the Building block
of matter
Type: Metal, metalloid and Nonmetal

Groupings: Representative or main, transition

and Lanthanide/Actanides

Family: Elements in the same column

have similar chemical property because
of similar valence electrons

Alkali, Alkaline, chalcogens, halogens, noble

gases

Period: Elements in the same row have

valence electrons in the same shell.