Safety

These last 2 decades accident-prevention in the nautical

trade has had enormous attention from both national and
international authorities, and from ship owners and
builders.
Especially after a few major shipping-disasters in the early
nineties, inquiries into the causes of accidents have
resulted in a greater emphasis on safety in navigation.

Safety
International investigation into marine accidents has shown
that some 80% of all maritime mishaps, accidents and
disasters are caused by human failure or crew's negligence.
The investigation has shown that the most frequent cause of
marine disasters lies with communication, or rather miscommunication, both inter-ship, intra-ship and between
vessels and Vessel Traffic Service-stations (VTS-stations).

When things go wrong...

small or massive fires

..flooding
that will cause such a list that the vessel will
capsize and be wrecked,

..collisions

2008 - Ship Collision Off Kyushu Island Leaves 3 Chinese Dead, 13 MissingFreighter Shinyo Sawako, a vessel
from China's Hong Kong Special Administration Region, and the fishing boat Lurongyu 2177 from the Chinese
mainland collided on the waters some 350 km south of Takarajima Island. The fishing boat sank immediately after
the crash, only two of its 18 crew members have been rescued

..groundings

acts of piracy

..casualties
persons overboard,
casualties,

injuries

and

major environmental pollutions, minor damages or damages

beyond repair any mishap, incident, accident or disaster will
inevitably have consequences for the vessel and cargo, her
crew and the environment. These consequences may range
from catastrophic to minor.

Consequences
When there is a total loss of ship and/or cargo, loss of lives, or a
widespread and severe environmental damage, we speak of
catastrophic consequences.

Consequences
When there is severe damage to ship and/or cargo,
when seriously injured persons require hospitalisation, or
when there is severe environmental damage, we
speak of major consequences.

Consequences
When there is significant damage to ship and/or cargo, when
injured persons require medical attention, or when there is
significant local damage to the environment, we speak of
moderate consequences. When there is minor damage to ship
and/or cargo, when persons are suffering from minor injuries
that do not require medical attention, or when there is hardly
any
environmental
damage,
we speak of
minor
consequences
that are
negligible.

Safety-factors
The safety of passengers and crew, ship and cargo is
determined by both internal and external factors, but most of
all by the Human Factor. The internal factors (IF) that may
influence safety are: the ship's dimensions and draft, her
rudder, propulsion system and navigational instruments.
The external factors (EF) are formed by weather conditions,
currents and tides, characteristics of
fairways and
unforeseen events. In documents the term "Act of God"
indicates that the shipowner will not be held responsible for
damage caused by
natural disasters.

Good seamanship
refers to The Human Factor (HF) and depends on the quality of the seafarers on
board. And because most vessels have been manned with multi-lingual crews,
special attention should be paid to the introduction of the internationally
standardised form of maritime communication on every ship in the world.

The Weather

Weather-conditions have a great influence

on the safety during a voyage and should always be
taken into consideration in voyage-planning and when
underway.
The state of the atmosphere is determined
by various
meteorological elements, such as
temperature, humidity, cloudiness and
fog, forms of
precipitation, barometric pressure, and speed and
direction of wind. All these elements may be referred to
as "the
weather".

Temperature

Any change in temperature is significant in weather-forecasting. When measuring

temperatures three different scales can be used:
the scientifically used Kelvin-scale, also referred to as the absolute scale;
the commonly used Celsius-scale, which measures a temperature in centigrades;
the obsolete Fahrenheit-scale.

Humidity
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air. Warm air is
capable to contain a higher grade of moisture, or humidity, than cold
air. The maximum amount of moisture that air can hold at a specific
temperature is known as "saturation. Most clouds are the result of a
rising mass of cool air. When the temperature of air falls, water
vapour in the air will condense into droplets of ice crystals, thus
forming clouds or fog.

Cloudiness

Clouds very often indicate an imminent change of weather. Rising clouds is

an indication that the weather is about to clear; lowering or thickening clouds
will indicate precipitation. The main types of clouds are the high cirrus
clouds, the layered stratus clouds and the huge and massive cumulus
clouds. "Alto stands for high, and "Nimbus means rain. The presence of
cirrus clouds may be a warning for an approaching storm. The low-hanging
stratus clouds indicate unstable weather. The altocumulus clouds may
precede adverse weather.

Fog

Fog is a cloud that touches the ground.

Dense fog will reduce visibility considerably and is referred to as
'thick weather. By this is meant any type of weather-condition that
will reduce visibility considerably, whether by fog, snow, rain, dust
haze or any other circumstance.

Precipitation
Precipitation is formed when the droplets or ice crystals in clouds have become
sufficiently large to fall to the ground.
Precipitation may take a variety of forms, for example rain, snow, drizzle, hail
or sleet.

Wind

Wind is the most important factor that determines the condition of

the weather. Wind is merely an amount of air that moves in a
horizontal motion over the earth from an area of high
barometric pressure towards an area of low barometric
pressure.

Wind
Falling barometric pressure generally indicates that a
gale or storm is approaching; rising pressure indicates
the approach or continuation of fair weather.

Winds

An area of low pressure is called a cyclone. A high-pressure area is

an anti-cyclone. Because of the rotation of the earth, the
circulations of winds in the northern hemisphere tend to be
clockwise around areas of high pressure, and anticlockwise
around low-pressure areas. In the southern hemisphere the
directions of circulation are the opposite.

Winds
Wind is always named after the direction it is coming from, not blowing in. Its force is
indicated by the Beaufort-scale numbers. These numbers, ranging from zero to
force 12, refer to the wind-speed measured in nautical miles per hour. For the
navigator the wind direction and force are the most important aspects of
meteorological conditions that are forecast in weather reports by weather stations.
Information must always include an increase or decrease in force and any change
in wind-direction. A change of direction is usually indicated by the terms "veering"
and "backing. A veering wind changes in a clockwise direction. A backing
wind changes in anti-clockwise direction.

Weather Forecast

A weather forecast for seafarers offers a survey of weather conditions that

may be expected in certain places, sea areas and in vicinities of coastal
stations within the next 24 hours. A weather forecast is broadcast in radio
bulletins and should be monitored by the navigator and transferred to the
Weather Forecast Information Sheet.

The Weather Forecast Information Sheet

must be made available to all

bridge-personnel and studied
regularly and closely in order to
determine short-range weather
conditions and visibility.
The sheet consists of three parts:
in the "General Synopsis"
Information given about barometric
pressure, position and movement of
a depression or anti-cyclone;
in the "Forecast for Sea Areas
information is given about wind,
weather conditions and visibility.
The presence of a gale is indicated by
a "tick" in the column "gales;
in "Reports from Coastal Stations
information is given about wind, weather
conditions, visibility and atmospheric
pressure.

Ship Motions

Due to the influences of wind and sea the vessel can make three
different rotating motions and three different linear motions:
when her starboard and port sides rise and fall with the waves, the
vessel is rolling http://
www.jacobtanenbaum.com/noaa/other/june17/roll.gif
when her stem and stern rise and fall with the waves, the vessel is
pitching http://www.jacobtanenbaum.com/noaa/other/june17/pitch.gif
when her bow is pushed to starboard and then to port, the vessel is
yawing http://www.jacobtanenbaum.com/noaa/other/june17/yaw.gif
when the whole ship rises and falls back into a trough, she is heaving
http://www.jacobtanenbaum.com/noaa/other/june17/heave.gif
when the ship is pushed forward by the waves and sinks back into a
trough, she is surging http://
www.jacobtanenbaum.com/noaa/other/june17/surge.gif
when the whole ship moves bodily to starboard and then to port, she is
swaying http://www.jacobtanenbaum.com/noaa/other/june17/sway.gif

Beaufort Wind Scale

The Beaufort Wind Scale is a guide
that will allow the navigator to determine
what sea-conditions he may encounter
at wind forces ranging from
0 knots to 64 > knots.

Tropical cyclones categories and damage

(Saffir/Simpson Scale)
Tropical cyclones may occur in the northern hemisphere and in the southern
hemisphere. The names by which they are known vary with the areas they originate
from. The most notorious tropical cyclones with wind speeds of 64 knots and over are
the Hurricane in the North Atlantic and Eastern Pacific, the Typhoon in the
Western North Pacific, the Cyclone in the Southwest Pacific and the Willy-Willy in
the Australian Area. The Saffir/Simpson Scale subdivides the tropical cyclones into 5
categories according to wind-force and corresponding damages that are caused.

Sea State
By "sea (or seaway) is meant the waves that are formed by wind in a
"generating area, that is: the area where the waves are being formed.
Waves that have travelled out of this generating area are referred to as
"swell. Height of waves depends on the prevailing wind force, how long
the wind has been blowing, current and fetch. Sea-state codes are used to
indicate to the mariner what the sea will look like. The codes range from 0 to
9 and correspond with a wave-height in meters.

Ice

Shipping may be impeded by all forms of ice ranging from a total

freeze-over to ice floes and icebergs.

Ice

New ice and Nilas (an elastic crust of ice) are quite soft and pliable forms of
ice that will hardly cause any damage to sea-going vessels.

Ice

Care must be taken that water inlets will not become obstructed.
Young ice and first-year ice are thicker and tougher and can be
recognized by their grey-white or milky-white colour. Icebreaker
assistance will often be necessary to ride up the ice and form an
opening.

Ice
After one year the ice will take a greenish appearance.
When the colour of the ice is green-blue we are dealing
with old ice (2 or more years of age) which is extremely
hard and dangerous to navigation.

Ice

Pancake ice, ice cakes and icefloes are flat pieces of ice 30 cm to 20 m in
diameter. Floebergs and Floebits are massive pieces of sea ice. Growlers,
Bergy hits and Icebergs are enormous pieces of floating ice with a thickness of
10 cm to many metres. Icebergs are notorious for their submarine ledges that
may extend to great distances from their visible parts, which constitute not more
than 10% of their total volumes.

Tides
Tides are mainly caused by the gravitational pull of the moon. This attractionforce causes the waters to swell out towards the moon in a high tide. At the
same time, on the far side of the earth, the moon's attraction is at its weakest
and the waters on that side will swell away from the moon in an equal and
opposite high tide. Within the 24-hour-period two high tides arise, with two
low tides in between them.

Tides

The sun has a gravitational effect on

the
earth, too. The effect of the sun's
gravity on the tides is
approximately
half of that of the moon because the
sun is at a far greater distance from
the earth.
Every other week, at new
and full moon, when the sun and
the
moon are both in line with the earth,
the
two gravitational forces are
added together, and
exceptionally
strong tides, called Spring-tides, are
produced. In the weeks that lie in
between, when the sun and the
moon are at 90
degrees to each
other, at the first and third quarters of
the
moon, the pull of the sun will cancel out
half
of the moons gravitational effect, and
weak tides, called
Neap tides, will occur.
This theoretical pattern does not
occur in
every part of the world.

Tides

The shape of a continent may prevent water from flowing uninterruptedly across the
surface of the planet, and this has complex effects on the regularity of tides. In some
places there are four high tides within 24 hours, while only one high tide and one low
tide a day in other areas. There are places on the oceans surfaces where all the tidal
forces cancel each other out. In restricted areas the tides may be almost
imperceptible, while in other areas enormous ranges - differences between high and
low tides - may occur.

Tides
Tides are measured from chart datum, and levels are always given at
average (mean) heights. The Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) is the lowest
tide that has ever been recorded in that area. Highest high tides and lowest
low tides are called Spring tides.
Highest low tides and lowest high tides are
called Neap tides. When the tide is turning
we speak of Slack tide. So, at Low Slack
the tide is about to rise; at High Slack the tide
is about to fall. This latter tide is especially
important to the mariner, since it is the best
tide to leave and proceed to open sea.

The Rules of the Road

The safety during a voyage is very dependent on the "conduct of vessels. This conduct
is largely determined by Good Seamanship and depends on the proper application of the
Rules of the Road, or, as they are also known, the Regulations for the Prevention of
Collisions at Sea (COLREGs). These internationally accepted rules apply to all vessels
upon the high seas" and in all waters navigable by seagoing vessels. Special rules that
deviate from the COLREGs are allowed. However, such special rules, made up by local
authorities for roadsteads, harbours, rivers, lakes or inland waterways, must conform as
closely as possible to the Rules.

ColRegs
The Rules consists of three parts.
Part A (Rules 1, 2 and 3) is a General part
Part B (Rules 4/19) deals with
Steering- and Sailing-Rules
and is divided into 3 chapters:
"Conduct of Vessels in any Condition of Visibility"
"Conduct of Vessels in sight of one another"
'Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility".
Part C (Rules 20 / 38) is about Lights and Shapes.
This latter chapter mainly deals with the lights
exhibited from vessels, and sound signals.

Emergency Response

In case of an emergency on board of a vessel, the crew will have to

respond properly to the situation arisen. The emergency-response
of each crewmember must be aimed at life-saving, prevention of
injuries and rendering first aid, the preservation of vessel and
cargo, and avoiding environmental pollution.

Emergency-response in case of a fire

The Chief Engineer is the head of the Fire Department. The third mate is usually the
Safety-Officer. Together they must see to it that fire-prevention equipment, firedetection equipment and fire-fighting equipment are in good order. If a fire cannot be
extinguished within two minutes after it has started, the fire alarm must be raised and
all those on board must be alerted. The fire plan will now come into operation. When
the fire cannot be controlled and is becoming massive, vessels in the vicinity and
coastal stations must also be alerted by a distress message on DSC/VHF, rockets,
flares, sound- and light signals. The General Alarm ("abandon ship) is given by
means of seven short blasts followed by one long blast on the horn. When a fire has
started, the colour and odour of the smoke
will indicate what is actually burning.
By manoeuvring the ship in such a way
that wind will blow from abeam,
the risk of suffocation due to toxic smoke
will be reduced.

Fire fighting

The immediate fire-fighting actions are:

close air vents and ventilation systems, so that the fire cannot be fed with oxygen
shut off any source of ignition to prevent explosions of gases
close all the fire-retarding doors
keep adjacent spaces wet while extinguishing the fire
prepare the first aid-equipment and hand out breathing equipment

Dangerous Goods

The symbols used to indicate the types of dangerous goods have been categorized by means of
coloured labels. The colours that are used
give very important information concerning
the storage of dangerous goods.

Thar she blows!

QUESTION: What Would Be The Worst

Possible Cargo To Be In That Burning

Container?
ANSWER: Well, Explosives,
Or Fireworks Would Be The Worst.
.

Dangerous goods
Orange-coloured labels indicate chemicals that must be separated
from flammable liquids by an intermediate space or on deck by at
least 12 meters. Red-coloured labels indicate chemicals that must
be separated from flammable solids, spontaneously combustible
agents or agents that are dangerous when wet by a longitudinal
space or on deck by at least 24 metres. Green-coloured labels
indicate chemicals that must be stored at a safe distance from
explosive goods. Yellow-coloured labels indicate chemicals that
may not be stored near flammable gas,
non-flammable compressed gas or
toxic gas.

Emergency-response in case of spilling or leaking of dangerous goods.

When dangerous goods (chemicals)

have been spilled, care must be taken
to rope off and evacuate the area as
quickly as possible. By using protective
clothing and a breathing apparatus
exposure to skin and eyes is prevented.
By using a water spray the vapour
coming from the dangerous substance
can be reduced. Any source of ignition
that may cause an explosion must
immediately be switched off. If without risk,
the leakage is closed. Now let the leakage
evaporate and scoop away the remainder.
Goods and items that have been
contaminated by the chemical substance
must be covered by tarpaulins and
removed in due time.

Emergency-response in case of exposure to dangerous goods.

When a person has been exposed to dangerous goods a physician must be
sent for at once and first aid must be practised. Clothes that have been
contaminated by the substance must be removed carefully. Eyes that have
been exposed must be flushed with luke-warm low-pressure running water
for at least 15 minutes. Skin that has been exposed will show injuries by
frostbite that must be thawed and dressed with bandage.

Emergency-response in case of exposure to dangerous goods

In case of inhalation the patient must be removed into fresh air; very often
oxygen or artificial respiration will have to be given. In case of ingestion of
certain chemical substances patients are not allowed to vomit.