ANATOMY &

PHYSIOLOGY
SEMESTER: 1
WEEK NUMBER: 9
LECTURE

CLAIR E BRA DY

Anatomy & Physiology

OUTCOME

An appreciation of the CNS

An appreciation of the structure of the ANS

Anatomy & Physiology

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Two subdivisions:
CNS: Central Nervous System
Composed of the brain and
spinal cord

PNS: Peripheral Nervous System

Consists of nerves, ganglia,
cranial and spinal nerves

Anatomy & Physiology

CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Consists of two major organs
The brain and spinal cord

Protected by:
Brain = skull
Spinal cord = vertebral column

Brain & spinal cord are continuous and pass

through an opening at the base of the skull

Anatomy & Physiology

BRAIN
Control centre of the body
Protected by the skull (22 bones)
Three main parts:
The cerebrum
The cerebellum
Brain Stem (Hypothalamus, Pons, Medulla Oblongata).

Anatomy & Physiology

BRAIN

Anatomy & Physiology

CEREBRUM
Largest part of the brain
Consists of two hemispheres
Divided by a deep longitudinal fissure
Each cerebrum controls the opposite side
The outer layer: Cortex or grey matter
Inside the grey matter is white matter (nerve fibres)
Conscious part of brain
Allows us think and to voluntarily control our movements
Anatomy & Physiology

LOBES OF EACH
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE
Each hemisphere has 5 lobes
1. Frontal personality, behaviour, emotion, intelligence
2. Parietal sensation, located on top
3. Occipital vision, most posterior lobe
4. Temporal controls hearing & smell lateral aspect
5. Insula deep within cerebral cortex. Higher functions
Anatomy & Physiology

DIENCEPHALON
- Upper end of the brain stem,
between the cerebrum and the
brain stem
Surrounded by cerebral
hemisphere & includes the
thalmus & the hypothalmus
Thalmus: relay station for
sensory & motor signals to the
cerebral cortex
Anatomy & Physiology

HYPOTHALAMUS
Situated deep within the cerebrum at the top of the
brain stem
Pituitary gland attached to its base
Function:
Regulation of body temperature, water balance and metabolism
Emotions (limbic system)
Regulates the pituitary gland: main link between the nervous and
endocrine systems
Anatomy & Physiology

DIENCEPHALON

Anatomy & Physiology

CEREBELLUM
Referred to as the small brain
2nd largest portion of the brain

Functions: Motor area of the brain that regulates

subconscious contractions of skeletal muscle
Essential for co-ordination, posture, balance
If damaged movements such as running, walking would be
uncoordinated
Anatomy & Physiology

BRAIN STEM
Between the diencephalon & spinal cord
Consists of the midbrain, pons & medulla oblongata
Regulates activities essential to life:

Visual reflex centre

Auditory reflex centre
Respiratory control centre
Cardiac centre regulates heart rate
Vasomotor centre to regulate blood pressure
Coughing, sneezing, vomiting, swallowing

Anatomy & Physiology

PONS VAROLII
From the latin bridge
In front of the cerebellum and
above the medulla oblongata
Consists of nerve fibres
bridging gap between the two
hemispheres of the cerebellum
Function: transmit messages
to and from the spinal cord
and the cerebrum
Anatomy & Physiology

MEDULLA
OBLONGATA
The medulla oblongata is smaller than the
cerebellum and is directly connected
with the spinal cord

Link from CNS to brain and vice versa

All sensory and motor nerves pass through

this part of the brain
This area is also the origin of 10 of the 12
pairs of cranial nerves

Anatomy & Physiology

It is also the centre of the autonomic

nervous system which controls the
heart, lungs, digestive system and other
systems of the body

MEDULLA
OBLONGATA
Functions:
Cardiac centre: controls rate and force of heart contraction
Respiratory centre: controls rate and depth of breathing
Vasomotor centre: controls constriction and dilation of blood vessels
Reflex centre: responds to irritants thus controls vomiting, coughing,
sneezing and swallowing.

Anatomy & Physiology

SPINAL CORD
Extends downwards through the vertebrae
Cylindrical in shape with an outer sheath enclosing cells and blood
vessels
The inner core of the cord houses the nerve fibers
Extends to the first and second lumbar vertebrae
Consists of white matter on the surface and grey matter on the inside
Branches off into 31 pairs of spinal nerves
Anatomy & Physiology

NERVES OF SPINAL
CORD
Sensory nerves :
Afferent: Carry neural signals or impulses from sensory receptors
such as the skin, muscles and joints to the upper levels of the CNS

Motor nerves:
Efferent: Transmit messages or impulses from the brain and upper
spinal cord down to the end organs (muscles, glands etc)

Anatomy & Physiology

PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Consists of nerves, ganglia, cranial and spinal nerves
Ganglia = a collection of cell bodies outside of the brain, spinal
cord & CNS
43 pairs of nerves
12 pairs are cranial and they are connected with the brain
31 pairs of spinal nerves and they branch off the spinal cord

The spinal nerves directly supply the skeletal muscles of the body
Nerves contain both sensory and motor neurons which transmit
information to and from the body and the brain
Anatomy & Physiology

PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Cranial Nerves
Most cranial nerves have a sensory & motor component
Provide innervation to the head, neck, thorax & abdomen
Come directly off the brain rather than the spinal cord
Process information from nerve cells/neurons that either innervate
muscles, glands/carry impulse from sensory areas
Numbered continuously anterior to posterior according to their
attachment to the brain

Anatomy & Physiology

PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
12 pairs of cranial nerves:

Anatomy & Physiology

Olfactory
Facial
Optic
Auditory
Occulomotor
Glosspharyngeal
Trochlear
Vagus
Abducent
Hypoglossal
Trigemental
Accessory

SPINAL NERVES
31 Pairs: emerge laterally from the spinal cord
Named accordingly to the segment of the spinal cord they
correspond with
Sensory and motor component

8 Cervical (C1 C8)

12 Thoracic (T1 - T12)
5 Lumbar (L1 L5)
5 Sacral (S1 S5)
One coccygeal

Plexus:
Where main portions of nerves join together
Network/group of nerves
Anatomy & Physiology

PLEXUSES
Cervical Plexus:
Nerve supply to the skin and muscles of the neck, shoulder &
diaphragm (C1-C4)

Brachial Plexus:
Innervates skin & muscles of the upper extremity (C5 T1)
Located posterior & superior to the clavicle

Lumbosacral Plexus:
Innervates skin & muscles of the lower extremity, abdominal wall,
buttocks & genitalia (L1 L5) & (S1 S5)

Anatomy & Physiology

NEURONS
Functional unit of the nervous system
Billions of neurons make up complex structure of the
nervous system
The neuron should be seen as the road that links the
various parts of the body within the sensory-motor
network
It links the spinal cord and the various connective
tissues of the body
Anatomy & Physiology

NEURON

Anatomy & Physiology

NEURON
The neuron is created so as to send messages in
one direction only
They are several types of neurons in the body
Three types of neuron are of direct interest to us as
S&C coaches and each is based on its function:
Sensory
Motor
Inter
Anatomy & Physiology

TYPES OF NEURONS
Sensory Neuron
Transmit impulses from
receptors in connective
tissue to the brain or
spinal cord
Transmit signals of:
Pain
Temperature
Pressure sensations

From the receptor cells

such as those located in
the skin back into the
CNS
Anatomy & Physiology

Motor Neuron
Transmit signals or efferent nerve impulses

from the brain or spinal cord to the effector

sites in the connective tissue or glands
There are two types of motor neurons:

Upper and Lower motorneurons

Inter Neuron
Transmit impulses from one neuron to
another

EFFERENT
SUBDIVISIONS
Motor division of the PNS is divided into the somatic &
autonomic nervous system
Somatic
Supplies motor impulses to skeletal muscle such as skin, muscles &
conscious activities
= voluntary nervous system able to control

Autonomic
Supplies motor impulses to the cardiac, smooth muscles, stomach,
intestines & moderates unconscious activities
= involuntary nervous system unable to control
= visceral nervous system (internal organs)
Anatomy & Physiology

AUTONOMIC
SUBDIVISIONS
Sympathetic
Fight/flight
Emergencies
Adrenalin
Agonist causes the action

Parasympathetic
Resting & response
Calm system
Helps body to conserve energy
Antagonist does the opposite

Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy & Physiology

EXAMPLE OF ANS:
FIGHT OR FLIGHT
This is the bodys natural protective response that is
triggered involuntarily when an immediate physical
response is required:
Natural ANS induced physiological response that occurs in the
human body

The actual biological response is always present in

some small degree

Anatomy & Physiology

There is a natural stress response that prepares

our body mentally and physically to either run or
fight 'through' a situation
The response varies depending on the stress
perception of the situation
If our perception is great, then a greater response will occur

Failure to alleviate this build-up will see a level of

distress as the stress was not released
Anatomy & Physiology

RESPONSE
1. The heartbeat increases
2. As the heart rate increases, so does blood pressure
3. Breathing becomes more shallow and rapid
4. Adrenaline and other hormones are released into the blood
stream
5. The liver releases stored sugar into the blood stream to
meet the increased need for more energy to ensure survival
Anatomy & Physiology

RESPONSE
6. The pupils dilate to let more light and other senses
become heightened
7. Muscles generate tension, preparing for movement, either
to fight or to run
8. Blood flow is constricted to the digestive organs
9. Blood flow increases to the brain and major organs
10. Blood flow increases to the major muscles
Anatomy & Physiology

RESPONSE
11. Blood flow is constricted to the extremities
12. The body perspires to cool itself
13. Blood clotting agents are released in
anticipation of injury

Anatomy & Physiology

COMPOSITION OF
THE ANS
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems
The main functions which are important to us as
S&C specialists relate to:

Heart rate control

Blood distribution management
Blood pressure control
Respiration
Emotional control
Hormonal control

Anatomy & Physiology

SYMPATHETIC
SYSTEM
Stimulation of the sympathetic system has the effect of
increasing body activity
When the sympathetic system is dominant it increases:

Heart rate
Blood pressure
Blood glucose concentration
Metabolic rate
Sweat secretion
Blood vessel dilation
Bronchodilation in the airways
Mental activity
Renal and digestive systems are slowed down so as to conserve energy that
can be used elsewhere (reduced urge to urinate during exercise)

Anatomy & Physiology

PARASYMPATHETIC
SYSTEM
When the parasympathetic system is dominant it
slows down body activity

Slows heart rate

Lowers blood pressure
Decreases sweat secretion
Reduces metabolic rate
Reduces mental activity

Anatomy & Physiology

The sympathetic system is stimulated by strong

emotions such as anger and excitement
The adrenal glands are stimulated by the
sympathetic system and secrete adrenaline
In some people the sympathetic system can be the
dominant system in general and this means that
they have a more frequent and higher than normal
adrenaline release
Anatomy & Physiology

ASSESSING THE
ANS
Most common form is Heart Rate Variability
Heart rate variability is essentially the time period between heart
beats

The interval is measured in milliseconds and

each beat interval is then used and compared to
establish the stress-recovery status of the athlete
Typically, during exercise this interval is reduced
and during rest it is increased
Anatomy & Physiology

When an athlete is resting or is well recovered

there is a good degree of variation in his or her time
between beats
In contrast when the athlete is training or is
stressed there is less variability or more rigidity

Anatomy & Physiology

THEORY BEHIND THE

SYSTEM
The system involves indirect measurement of both
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems
The theory is that by measuring the time interval
parasympathetic drive is being determined
Thus heart rate variability or the variation in the
time beats is used to assess the dominance or
balance of these two systems
Anatomy & Physiology

Where the time interval varies a lot then the

parasympathetic system is dominant
When the variation in heart beat is small the
sympathetic system is dominant

Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy & Physiology

REFERENCES
Cael, C. (2010) Functional Anatomy. Philadelphia:
LWW
Arnould-Taylor, W. (2001) A textbook of Anatomy &
Physiology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
Tucker, L. (2008) An introductory guide to A&P.
Chapter 7.

Anatomy & Physiology