Weather,

climate, and
Ecosystem

Weather

Introduction
Weather,state of theatmosphereat a particular place during
a short period of time.
Involves such atmospheric phenomena
astemperature,humidity,precipitation(type and amount),air
pressure,wind, andcloudcover.
Weather, as most commonly defined, occurs in the
troposphere, the lowest region of the atmosphere that
extends from the Earths surface to 68 km (45 miles) at the
poles and to about 17 km (11 miles) at the Equator.
Recent research, for example, has revealed that oceansurface temperature anomalies are a potential cause of
atmospheric temperature anomalies in successive seasons
and at distant locations.

 The changeability of weather varies widely in different parts of

the world.

Introduction

Weather has a tremendous influence on human settlement

patterns, food production, and personal comfort.

Extremes of temperature andhumiditycause discomfort and

may lead to the transmission of disease; heavyraincan cause
flooding, displacing people and interrupting economic
activities; thunderstorms, tornadoes,hail, andsleetstorms
may damage or destroy crops, buildings, and transportation
routes and vehicles. Storms may even kill or injure people and
livestock.

At sea and along adjacent coastal areas, tropical cyclones

(also called hurricanes or typhoons) can cause great damage
through excessive rainfall and flooding, winds, and wave
action to ships, buildings, trees, crops, roads, and railways,
and they may interruptairservice and communications.

Heavy snowfall and icy conditions can impede transportation

and increase the frequency of accidents.

 The development of weather satellites since the

1980s has enabled meteorologists to track the
movement of cyclones, anticyclones, their associated
fronts, and storms worldwide.
In addition, the use ofradarpermits the monitoring
of precipitation, clouds, and tropospheric winds.
To predict the weather one week or more in
advance,computerscombine weather models, which
are based on the principles of physics, with measured
weather variables, such as current temperature
andwindspeed.
In tropical regions, by contrast, daily weather
variations are small, with regularly occurring
phenomena and perceptible change associated more
with seasonal cycles (dry weather and monsoons).
For some tropical areas, tropical cyclones themselves
are one of the more influential weather variables.

Introduction

Climate

Introduction
Climate,conditions of theatmosphereat a particular
location over a long period of time; it is the long-term
summation of the atmospheric elements (and their
variations)
that,
over
short
time
periods,
constituteweather.
A region's climate is generated by theclimate system,
which
has
five
components:atmosphere,hydrosphere,cryosphere,lit
hosphere, and biosphere.
The
climate
of
a
location
is
affected
itslatitude,terrain,
andaltitude,
as
well
nearbywater bodiesand their currents.

by
as

Climates can beclassified according to the average and

the typical ranges of different variables, most
commonly temperature and precipitation.

SOLAR RADIATION AND TEMPERATURE

Airtemperatures have their origin in theabsorptionof
radiant energyfrom the Sun. They are subject to many
influences, including those of theatmosphere,ocean, and
land, and are modified by them. As variation of solar
radiation is the single most important factor affecting
climate, it is considered here first.
Nuclear fusiondeep within theSunreleases a tremendous
amount ofenergythat is slowly transferred to the solar
surface, from which it is radiated intospace.
Because of the slight ellipticity ofEarths orbit around the
Sun, the amount of solar energy intercepted by Earth
steadily rises and falls by 3.4 percent throughout the year,
peaking on January 3, when Earth is closest to the Sun.
Although about 31 percent of this energy is not used as it

The noon time elevation angle reaches a maximum at all

latitudes north of the Tropic of Cancer (23.5 N) around June 22
and a minimum around December 22. South of the Tropic of
Capricorn (23.5 S), the opposite holds true, and between the
two tropics, the maximum elevation angle (90) occurs twice a
year.
When the Sun has a lower elevation angle, the solar energy is
less intense because it is spread out over a larger area.
Variation of solar elevation is thus one of the main factors that
accounts for the dependence of climatic regime on latitude.
The other main factor is the length of daylight. For latitudes
pole ward of 66.5 N and S, the length of day ranges from zero
(wintersolstice) to 24 hours (summer solstice), whereas
theEquatorhas a constant 12-hour day throughout the year.
The seasonal range oftemperatureconsequently decreases
from high latitudes to the tropics, where it becomes less than
the diurnal range of temperature.

Effect on atmosphere
Of theradiantenergy reaching the top of the atmosphere, 46
percent isabsorbedby Earths surface on average, but this value
varies significantly fromplaceto place, depending on cloudiness,
surface type, and elevation.
If there is persistent cloudcover, as exists in some equatorial
regions, much of the incident solar radiation is scattered back to
space, and very little is absorbed by Earths surface.
Water surfaces have low reflectivity (410 percent), except in low
solar elevations, and are the most efficient absorbers. Snow
surfaces, on the other hand, have high reflectivity (4080 percent)
and so are the poorest absorbers. High-altitudedesertregions
consistently absorb higher-than-average amounts of solar
radiation because of the reduced effect of the atmosphere above
them.

 The emitted wavelengths are mainly between 5 and 100 m (0.0002 and 0.004 inch), and they
interact differently with the atmosphere compared with the shorter wavelengths of solar
radiation. Very little of the radiation emitted by Earths surface passes directly through the
atmosphere.
An additional 23 percent or so of the incident solar radiation is absorbed on average in the
atmosphere, especially by water vapour and clouds at lower altitudes and byozone(O3) in
thestratosphere.
Absorption of solar radiation by ozone shields the terrestrial surface from harmful
ultravioletlightand warms the stratosphere, producing maximum temperatures of 15 to 10
C (5 to 50 F) at an altitude of 50 km (30 miles). Most atmospheric absorption takes place
atultravioletandinfraredwavelengths, so more than 90 percent of the visible portion of the
solar spectrum, with wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.7 m (0.00002 to 0.00003 inch), reaches
the surface on acloud-free day.
Visible light, however, is scattered in varying degrees by cloud droplets,airmolecules,
anddustparticles. Blue skies and red sunsets are in effect attributable to the
preferentialscatteringof short (blue) wavelengths by air molecules and small dust particles.
Cloud droplets scatter visible wavelengths impartially (hence, clouds usually appear white)
but very efficiently, so the reflectivity of clouds to solar radiation is typically about 50 percent
and may be as high as 80 percent for thick clouds.

Most of it is absorbed by clouds,carbon dioxide, andwatervapour and is then reemitted in

all directions. The atmosphere thus acts as a radiative blanket over Earths surface, hindering
the loss of heat to space.

 The blanketing effect is greatest in the presence of low

clouds and weakest for clear cold skies that contain little
water vapour. Without this effect, the mean surface
temperature of 15 C (59 F) would be some 30 C colder.
Conversely, as atmospheric concentrations ofcarbon
dioxide,methane,
chlorofluorocarbons,
and
other
absorbing gases continue to increase, in large part owing
to human activities, surface temperatures should rise
because of the capacity of such gases to trap infrared
radiation.
The exact amount of this temperature increase, however,
remains uncertain because of unpredictable changes in
other atmospheric components, especially cloud cover.
An extreme example of such an effect (commonly dubbed
thegreenhouse effect) is that produced by the dense
atmosphere of theplanetVenus, which results in surface
temperatures of about 475 C (887 F). This condition

Ecosyste
Ecosyste
m
m

Introduction
An ecosystem can be categorized into its
non-living constituents,
including minerals,climate,soil, water, sunlight, and all other nonliving
elements, and its biotic constituents, consisting of all its living members.

Linking these constituents together are two major forces: the flow
ofenergythrough the ecosystem, and the cycling ofnutrientswithin the
ecosystem.

The fundamental source of energy in almost all ecosystems is radiant

energy from thesun. The energy of sunlight is used by the
ecosystemsautotrophic, or self-sustaining, organisms.
Consisting largely of green vegetation, these organisms are capable
ofphotosynthesisi.e., they can use the energy of sunlight to convert
carbon dioxide and water into simple, energy-rich carbohydrates.
The autotrophs use the energy stored within the simple carbohydrates to
produce the more complex organic compounds, such as proteins, lipids,
and starches, that maintain the organisms life processes. The autotrophic
segment of the ecosystem is commonly referred to as theproducerlevel.

 Organicmattergenerated by autotrophs
sustainsheterotrophicorganisms.

directly

or

indirectly

Heterotrophs are the consumers of the ecosystem; they cannot

make their own food. They use, rearrange, and ultimately
decompose the complex organic materials built up by the
autotrophs. All animals and fungi are heterotrophs, as are
mostbacteriaand many other microorganisms.
Together, the autotrophs and heterotrophs form various trophic
(feeding) levels in the ecosystem
Actually, in many cases the food chains of the ecosystem overlap
and interconnect, forming what ecologists call afood web.
The final link in all food chains is made up ofdecomposers, those
heterotrophs that break down dead organisms and organic wastes.
A food chain in which the primary consumer feeds on living plants
is called agrazing pathway; that in which the primary consumer
feeds on deadplantmatter is known as adetritus pathway.
Both pathways are important in accounting for theenergybudget
of the ecosystem.

Ecosystem process
Energyandcarbonenter ecosystems through photosynthesis, are incorporated
into living tissue, transferred to other organisms that feed on the living and dead
plant matter, and eventually released through respiration. Most mineral nutrients,
on the other hand, are recycled within ecosystems.
Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors. External factors,
also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way
things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem.
The most important of these isclimate. Rainfall patterns and temperature
seasonality determine the amount of water available to the ecosystem and the
supply of energy available (by influencing photosynthesis).
Parent material, the underlying geological material that gives rise to soils,
determines the nature of the soils present, and influences the supply of mineral
nutrients.
Topographyalso controls ecosystem processes by affecting things
likemicroclimate, soil development and the movement of water through a system.
This may be the difference between the ecosystem present inwetlandsituated in
a small depression on the landscape, and one present on an adjacent steep
hillside.

 Other external factors that play an important role in ecosystem functioning include
time and potentialbiota.
Ecosystems are dynamic entitiesinvariably, they are subject to periodic
disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance.
Time plays a role in the development of soil from bare rock and therecovery of a
community from disturbance.Similarly, the set of organisms that can potentially be
present in an area can also have a major impact on ecosystems.
Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world
can end up doing things very differently simply because they have different pools of
species present.
Unlike external factors, internal factors in ecosystems not only control ecosystem
processes, but are also controlled by them.
Consequently, they are often subject tofeedback loops.
While theresourceinputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate
and parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is
controlled by internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading.
Other factors like disturbance, succession or the types of species present are also
internal factors.
Human activities are important in almost all ecosystems. Although humans exist
and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to
influence external factors like climate.

 Primary production : Primary production is the production oforganic matter

from inorganic carbon sources. Overwhelmingly, this occurs through
photosynthesis.
The energy incorporated through this process supports life on earth, while the
carbon makes up much of the organic matter in living and dead biomass,soil
carbonand fossil fuels. It also drives thecarbon cycle, which influences
globalclimatevia thegreenhouse effect.
Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture energy from light and
use it to combinecarbon dioxide and water to
producecarbohydratesandoxygen.
The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an ecosystem is called the
gross primary production (GPP).About 4860% of the GPP is consumed in plant
respiration. The remainder, that portion of GPP that is not used up by
respiration, is known as the net primary production (NPP).
Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These
include the amount of light available, the amount ofleafarea a plant has to
capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis),
rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to thechloroplaststo support
photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable
temperatures for carrying outphotosynthesis.

 Decomposition :
The carbon and nutrients indead organic matterare broken down by a group of
processes known as decomposition.
This releases nutrients that can then be re-used for plant and microbial production,
and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (or water) where it can be used for
photosynthesis.
In the absence of decomposition, dead organic matter would accumulate in an
ecosystem and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted.
Approximately 90% of terrestrial NPP goes directly from plant to decomposer.
Decomposition processes can be separated into three categoriesleaching,
fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. As water moves through
dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water-soluble components.
These are then taken up by organisms in the soil, react with mineral soil, or are
transported beyond the confines of the ecosystem (and are considered "lost" to it).
Newly shed leaves and newly dead animals have high concentrations of watersoluble components, and includesugars,amino acidsand mineral nutrients.
Leaching is more important in wet environments, and much less important in dry
ones.

 Nutrient cycle :
Ecosystems continually exchange energy and carbon with the widerenvironment; mineral nutrients, on the
other hand, are mostly cycled back and forth between plants, animals, microbes and the soil.
Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biologicalnitrogen fixation, is deposited through precipitation,
dust, gases or is applied asfertilizer.Since most terrestrial ecosystems are nitrogen-limited, nitrogen cycling
is an important control on ecosystem production.
When plant tissues are shed or are eaten, the nitrogen in those tissues becomes available to animals and
microbes.
Microbial decomposition releases nitrogen compounds from dead organic matter in the soil, where plants,
fungi and bacteria compete for it.
Some soil bacteria use organic nitrogen-containing compounds as a source of carbon, and release
ammoniumions into the soil. This process is known asnitrogen mineralization. Others convert ammonium
tonitriteand nitrateions, a process known asnitrification.Nitric oxideandnitrous oxideare also produced
during nitrification.[15]Under nitrogen-rich and oxygen-poor conditions, nitrates and nitrites are converted
tonitrogen gas, a process known as denitrification.
Other important nutrients includephosphorus,sulphur,calcium,potassium,magnesiumandmanganese.
Phosphorus enters ecosystems throughweathering. As ecosystems age this supply diminishes, making
phosphorus-limitation more common in older landscapes (especially in the tropics).
Calcium and sulphur are also produced by weathering, but acid deposition is an important source of sulphur
in many ecosystems.
Although magnesium and manganese are produced by weathering, exchanges between soil organic matter
and living cells account for a significant portion of ecosystem fluxes.
Potassium is primarily cycled between living cells and soil organic matter.