Electron Optics, Lenses and Apertures - Electron Microscopy and Diffraction

Do Minh Nghiep
Materials Science Center
Electron Microscopy
and Diffraction
3. Electron optics, Lenses and Apertures
Part of the figures, texts are quoted from internet resources. All the copyrights belong to the original authors.
All the references made here are for educational purpose only.
Content
 Image formation
 System of optical, electrostatic and
electromagnetic lensses
 Aperture system
 Optical aberrations and its corrections
01/01/2009 Handouts-MSE4346-K51KHVL 2
Imaging
Light and electron optics
OM TEM SEM
Illuminati
on
source
Conden
se lens
Condenser
lens
Specim
en
Objecti
ve Objective
lens lens 1
Projecti
on lens
Objective
lens 2
Image Detecto
plane r
Specim
Ey Fluorescent
en
e screen
Electron path and signals used in EMs
TEM
STE
M
Sample
SEM
Imaging principle
 TEM
Optical instrument in that it uses a lens to form an
image
 SEM
- Not an optical instrument (no image-forming
lens).
- But it uses electron optics: probe forming-signal
detecting devices.
Refraction by lens
Incident
beam
Medium 1:
Refraction or bending
lower density
of a illumination beam
is caused when the
wave enters a medium
Medium 2:
higher
of a different optical
density density.
Refracted
beam
Refraction in OMs
 In light optics this is accomplished when a light

moves from air into glass.
 In EM there is only a vacuum with an optical density
of 1.0 (whereas glass has much higher).
Refraction in EMs
 In electron optics we cannot bend the
beam by a conventional (glass) lens of a
different optical density.
 Instead a “force” must be applied that has
the same effect causing the beam of
illumination to bend. It is Electromagnetic or
Electrostatic force.
Light optics vs electron optics
 Classic optics: The refractive index changes abruptly
at a surface and is constant between the surfaces. The
refraction of light at surfaces, separating media of
different refractive indices, makes it possible to construct
imaging lenses. Glass surfaces can be shaped.
 Electron optics: Here, changes in the refractive index
are gradual, so rays are continuous curves rather than
broken straight lines. Refraction of electrons must be
accomplished by fields in space around charged
electrodes or solenoids, and these fields can assume
only certain distributions consistent with field theory.
Lenses
Glass lenses
Converging (positive) lens (convex glass):
 Bends rays toward the axis.
 It has a positive focal length.
Forms a real inverted image of an object placed to the left
of the first focal point and an erect virtual image of an object
placed between the first focal point and the lens.
Glass lenses
Diverging (negative) lens (concave glass):
 Bends the light rays away from the axis.
 It has a negative focal length.
An object placed anywhere to the left of a diverging
lens results in an erect virtual image.
It is not possible to construct a negative magnetic
lens although negative electrostatic lenses can be
made.
Electrostatic lens
Must have very clean and high vacuum
environment to avoid arcing across plates.
Electrostatic lens vs glass lens
Converging lens
Diverging lens
Electromagnetic lens: principle
Passing through a
single coil of wire a
current will produce a
strong magnetic field
in the center of the coil
Electromagnetic lens: construction
Pole pieces of iron concentrate lines of magnetic force.
Pole Magnetic
Coil
force lines
pieces
Electromagnetic lens:
lines of magnetic force
magnetic forces
Two force vectors:
one in the direction of the
electron trajectory
the other perpendicular to
it
they cause the electrons
to move through the
magnetic field in a helical
manner.
spiralling mouving of
electron
The strength of the magnetic

field is determined by:
 the number of wraps of the `
wire and
 the amount of current
passing through the wire.
Two types of electromagnetic lens
 A value of zero
current (weak lens)
would have an
infinitely long focal
length
 A large amount of
current (strong lens)
would have a short
focal length.
Aperture system
TEM contrast image
A TEM image contrast
is made up of:
nonscattered electrons
(which strike the screen:
bright area)
Scattered beam scattered electrons (which
Transmitted beam do not: dark area)
therefore appear as a
shadow on the screen
(contrast : intensity
defference)
Aperture increases
image quality
 Some of the electrons will
only be partially scattered and
thus will reach the screen in
an inappropriate position,
giving a false signal and thus
contributing to a degradation
of the image.
 These forward scattered
electrons can be eliminated
by placing an aperture
beneath the specimen.
Aperture is followed by lens
Sample grid
Scattered
electron
Objective
Transmitted
aperture
electron
The design of an electromagnetic lens results in a very strong lens with

a very short focal length, thus requiring that the specimen lie within the
lens itself along with an aperture to stop the highly scattered electrons.
Aperture location and materials
 Both the specimen rod and

Upper pole piece
the aperture rod assembly
Sample have to be inserted into
Aperture the lens.
 They are made of
nonmagnetic metals such
Lower pole piece as copper (Cu), brass (Cu-
Zn) and platinum (Pt)
Aperture - contrast - resolution
 While a small opening objective aperture has the advantage of
stopping scattered electrons and thus increasing image contrast
 It also dramatically reduces the half angle of illumination for the
projection lenses and thus decreases image resolution
Small aperture increases Large aperture increases

contrast resolution
Narrow aperture generates
diffraction
Diffraction occurs
when a wavefront
encounters an edge of
an object. This results
in the establishment
of new wavefronts.
Narrow aperture reduces resolution
due to diffraction
 Diffraction occurs at the
edges of an aperture.
 The diffracted waves
spread out the focus
rather than concentrate
them.
 This results in a
decreasing resolution,
(more pronounced with
ever smaller apertures).
Aperture corrects optic defects
Chromatic aberrationMany focal planes Spherical aberration
Many focal planes
Edges beam Edges beam
Narrow aperture
One focal plane One focal plane

Narrow aperture
Pros and cons of aperture
Advantages Disadvantages
Increase contrast by Decrease resolution due to
blocking scattered effects of diffraction
electrons
Decrease resolution by
Decrease effects of reducing half angle of
chromatic and spherical illumination
aberration by cutting off
Decrease illumination by
edges of a lens
blocking scattered electrons
Lens defects and
its corrections
Chromatic aberration
 The focal length f of a lens is
dependent on the strength of
the lens and energy of beam.
 Therefore different wavelengths
will be focused to different
positions.
 Chromatic aberration (CA) of a
lens is seen as fringes around
the image due to a “zone” of
focus.
Chromatic aberration in OM and EM
 In light optics wavelengths
OM of higher energy (blue)
are bent more strongly
and have a shorter focal
length.
 In the electron
microscope the exact
opposite is true in that
EM higher energy
wavelengths are less
effected and have a
longer focal length.
Correction of CA in OM
by doublet lens
 In light optics chromatic
aberration can be
corrected by combining
a converging lens with
a diverging lens.
 This is known as a
“doublet” lens.
Correction of CA in EM
by achromatic lens
LEO Gemini Lens
In EM we can
combine an
electromagnetic
(converging) lens
Electromagnetic lens
with an electrostatic
Electrostatic lens
(diverging) lens to
create an achromatic
Sample lens
Correction of CA by using
monochromatic wave source
ecr uos ci t a mor hc ono M
The simplest way to correct for chromatic aberration

is to use illumination of a single wavelength. This is
accomplished in an EM by having a very stable
acceleration voltage. If the electron velocity is
stable, the illumination source is monochromatic .
Scattering causes polychromatic wave
Primary monochromatic electrons The problem arises when

electrons are differentially
Sample scattered within the
specimen, slowing some
more than others, and thus
producing polychromatic
illumination from a primary
Scattered polychromatic electrons monochromatic beam.
So aberration is unavoidable.
CA correction by aperture
(at lens edges)
Many focal planes
 The chromatic aberration
are most profound at the
edges of the lens.
Edges beam
 By placing an aperture
Narrow aperture immediately after the
specimen, chromatic
aberration is reduced along
with increasing contrast.
One focal plane
Spherical aberration
Spherical aberration
ecr uos ci t a mor hc ono M
 When wavelengths enter and leave the lens field at different

angles, it results in a defect known as spherical aberration (SA).
 The result is similar to that of chromatic aberration in that
wavelengths are brought to different focal points.
SA correction by aperture
Many focal planes
Spherical aberrations
are worst at the
periphery of a lens so
Edges beam again a small opening
aperture that cuts off
the most offensive part
of the lens is the best
way to reduce the
effects of spherical
One focal plane
Narrow aperture aberration.
Lens
Focal point F1 Astigmatism
Astigmatism - distorted
Z-plane image, caused by:
Focal
Y-plane point
Focal F2 Lens unsymmetrical,
point
F1 objects will be focussed
to different focal planes,
resulting in an
astigmatic image
 Dirt on aperture
Astigmatism
Lens
Correction by stigmator
 In OM astigmatism is
corrected by making a
lens with a corresponding
defect to correct for the
defect in another lens.
 In EM it is corrected using
a stigmator - a ring of
electromagnets positioned
around the beam to
“push” and “pull” the beam
to make it more perfectly
circular.

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Do Minh Nghiep

Materials Science Center

 In light optics this is accomplished when a light

The strength of the magnetic

The design of an electromagnetic lens results in a very strong lens with

 Both the specimen rod and

Small aperture increases Large aperture increases

Edges beam Edges beam

One focal plane One focal plane

The simplest way to correct for chromatic aberration

Primary monochromatic electrons The problem arises when

 When wavelengths enter and leave the lens field at different

Focal point F1 Astigmatism

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