Intersections and Traffic

Signals
CE 303 Transportation
Engineering
Department of Civil
Engineering
University of Peardeniya
By
Dr G S Gurusinghe.
09th October 2010.

Intersections

Necessary to change travel

directions
Intersections have approach
flows and exit flows
Crossing, diverging and
merging conflicts are
created at intersections
2

Movement conflicts at a four legged

intersection

Good Intersection Design

Minimises conflicts
By self regulation
Priority intersections
Give way to right
By forced regulation
Phase the traffic flow.
Controlled by a person
Controlled by traffic control devices

By grade separation
4

Two phase traffic movement at a four

legged intersection

Phase
1

Phase
2

A three phase traffic movement at a

four legged intersection

Phase

Phase

Phase
3
6

A four phase traffic movement at a

four legged intersection

Phase
1

Phase
2

Phase
3

Phase
4

Traffic Signal Operation

Schedule moving time (Green
Time) for each phase
Efficient and safe movement of
traffic across the intersection
Reduce delay at the intersection
Determine sufficient green time
for each phase
8

Key Definitions in Traffic Signal

Operation

Cycle time(c) of the intersection

The total time before repetition

Signal time (Stages)

Red, Red-Amber, Green, Amber periods in the
cycle

Movement is a separate sequence

leading to the intersection
Pedestrian movement
9

 Saturation flow (s)

maximum volume of flow for
each lane of the movement (a
queue is always present)
Green time (gi) for the
movement or movements in a
phase
Lost time (i) for the phase
start and end lost times and
time lost during intergreen
10

Cycle of Signal Indicators

Red
Red and Amber
Green
Amber

11

Phas
e1
Phas
e2
Phas
e3
Phas
e4

green
red

Cycle time =
c
red

green

green
re
da

red

re
da

green a

red

re
da

red

red
green

re
da

Traffic signal cycle without sufficient

safety period
between consecutive green periods
12

green

Cycle time = c
red

red
a

Phase 1
red
Phase 2

green
red
a

red
Phase 3
Phase 4

red

Intergreen
time

red
green

red
a

Intergreen
time

green

a
red
a

red
green

Intergreen
time

Intergreen
time

Traffic signal cycle with sufficient

safety period between consecutive
green periods

13

green

Lost time during

intergreen
period

am
b

red

red
amber

red

green

Intergreen
time
Eg.Intergreen period = 9 sec,
= 4 sec
Lost time

Amber period

= 5 sec

Lost Time During Intergreen

Period
14

Flow across stop line (veh/h)

Starting and End Lost Times

Starting
lost time

End lost
time
Saturation flow(s veh/h)

Discharge
curve
Effective green time
gi

Red
Amber

Actual green time

Time available for
discharge

Amber Red

15

Starting and End Lost Time

i = Phase No
(i) = Lost time of phase i =
(Starting lost time + End lost
time) + (Lost time during
intergreen period)
gi = Effective green time of
phase i
= Green + Amber Time
(Starting + End Lost Time).

16

Total Lost Time in a Phase

Time lost during intergreen
period
Time lost at start of
discharge period
Time lost at the end of
discharge period
17

Total Lost Time Per Cycle

The total lost time per phase is the
sum of the three lost times denoted
by (i). The total lost time per cycle L
= (i). G is the time available for
discharge of vehicles at a signalized
intersection during cycle time c.
L = (i) = c G
Where, G = gi

18

Input Data for Signal Timing

Approach flows ( arrival rates)
Saturation flow of each
movement
Phasing of movements
Lost time of each phase
Degree of saturation
19

Degree of Saturation (xi)

Is the ratio of traffic demand on the
movement (the number of vehicles
arriving in a cycle) to the capacity of
the movement (the maximum
number of vehicles that could be
discharged during the green period in
the cycle.)
qi c qi yi
qi
gi
xi

yi
ui
si g i Ci ui
si
c
20

 Ci is the capacity of a
movement i
Maximum flow of the movement
si g i
possible per unit time
Ci
si u i

Intersection Degree of
Saturation (xp) = max {xi}
Use a maximum of xp = 0.9 for
design purposes
21

UK Practice for Estimation of

Saturation Flow
Assign pcu equivalent factors to compute
saturation flows in pcu/h (pcph).
1.0 for light vehicles. 1.5 for medium
commercial vehicles, 2.3 for heavy
commercial vehicles, 2.0 for buses and
coaches, 0.4 for motorcycles, 0.2 for bicycles

Basic saturation flow (sb) is taken as 2080

pcu/h for a 3.2 m wide non-nearside lane

22

 Lane saturation flow depends on

the proportion of turning traffic (f),
radius of turn (r metres), gradient
(G, G=1/0 (uphill/downhill), lane
position (n=1/0 (nearside/other)
and lane width (w metres).
Saturation flow of an approach is
the sum of the lane saturation
flows.
23

Saturation Flow

Saturation flow of a single

2080
140 n 42 G G 100 w 3.25
unopposed
lane
s r , f , n, G , w
f
1 1. 5
r

1 for nearside lane and 0 for other lanes

1 for uphill and 0 for downhill gradients

the percentage gradient of the lane

lane with

proportion of right turning vehicles in the lane

radius of curvature of vehicle path

24

Saturation flow of a single

opposed lane
s2 = s g + s c
sg is for the departure of vehicles
during the effective green time
and
sc is for departures immediately
after the end of the effective
green time
25

s0 230
sg
,
1 f T 1
sc P1 N s fX Opp

0.2

3600
uc

s0 r , f , n, G, w 2080 42 G G 100 w 3.25

1.5 t1
T 1

r t2

26

t1

12 X Opp

1 0.61 f N s

t 2 1 fX Opp

Xopp is the traffic intensity in the

qopp c
opposing direction X 0 pp

P 1 pi i 1

s opp g

27

 P is a conversion factor (for

transforming veh/h into
pcu/h)
pi is the proportion of type i
vehicles and i is the
corresponding pcu
equivalent
28

qOpp

Flow in opposing direction, excluding non

= obstructing right turners, expressed as
veh/h of green time

sOpp = Saturation flow of opposing direction

f

= Proportion of right turning traffic

Ns

Number of storage space within the

= intersection that right turners can use
without blocking through traffic

= Cycle time in sec

= g/c ratio
29

Example 1
One of the approach lanes to an intersection is
2.5 m wide, on an uphill grade of 5%. The right
turn radius at the intersection is 20 m. The
percentage of right turn vehicles is 25%. The
flow of this lane is opposed by a straight ahead
lane whose degree of saturation is 0.75. There
is room for 2 right turning vehicles to wait in
the intersection. The pcu/vehicle ratio is 1.5.
If the cycle time is 120 s and the effective
green period for the phase is 80 s, calculate the
saturation flow on this lane at the intersection.
30

Solution
Apply s2 = sg + sc

s0 230
0.2 3600
sg
, sc P1 N s fX Opp
1 f T 1
uc
1.5 t1
T 1

r t2
t1

12 X Opp

1 0.61 f N s

12 0.75

3.55
1 0.61 .25 2
2

31

t 2 1 fX Opp 1 .25 0.75 0.96

2

1.5 t1
T 1

r t2

1.5 3.55
1

4.77
20 0.96

s0 r , f , n, G, w 2080 42 G G

100 w 3.25
s0 r , f , n, G, w 2080 42 1 3
100 2.5 3.25 2029 pcu / h
32

s0 230
2029 230
sg

926 pcu / h
1 f T 1 1 .25 4.77 1

3600
sc P1 N s fX Opp
uc
3600
0. 2
1.51 2 .25 .75
0.66 120
0.2

3600
sc 1.51 2 .25 .75
146
0.66 120
s2=sg+sc=926+146 = 1072 pcu/h
0.2

33

Example 2
Non nearside lane 3.0 m wide.
Downhill gradient = 3%. Right turns =
40%. r = 25m. c = 60s. g i = 40s.
Opposing flow degree of saturation =
xo = 0.85. Ratio pcu/vehicles (P) =1.5.
Calculate s2
Solution

For the opposed lane, s2 = sg + sc

34

s0 230
0.2 3600
sg
, sc P 1 N s fX Opp
1 f T 1
uc
1.5 t1
T 1

r
t2

t1

12 X Opp

1 0.61 f N s

t 2 1 fX Opp

2
12 0.85 2
t1
5.04 t 2 1 0.4 0.85 0.88
1 0.61 0.4 2

1.5 5.04
T 1

6.79
25 0.88

s0 r , f , n, G, w 2080 42 G G 100 w 3.25

35

s0 r , f , n, G, w 2080 42 0 3

100 3.0 3.25 2055

2055 230
sg
550 pcu / h
1 0.4 6.79 1

sc 1.51 2 0.4 0.85

0.2

3600
326 pcu / h
40

s2=sg+sc= 550 + 326 = 876 pcu/h

36

Figure
for
Example
2

37

Cycle Time
It was shown that Capacity Ci is given by,

si g i
Ci
si u i
c

gi
[ui ]
c

For the signals to function satisfactorily,

capacity arrival volume. i.e.
si g i
Ci
qi
c
This is an important tool in selecting the
critical movement of a phase
38

Phase A

Phase B

Consider this Simple phasing arrangement at a cross

section
39

For phase A, s2g24 q2c , s4g24 q4c

For phase B, s1g13 q1c , s3g13 q3c
Subject to the constraint,
c = g13+ g24+ L
Note that there are two inequalities per
phase. One is dominant and the other is
redundant. If there are N movements per
phase there is one dominant inequality and
N-1 are redundant.
40

 Calculate y value for each

qi
movement
y
Applying

si g i
Ci
qi
c

g 24
uA
y2
c
g13
uB
y1
c

si

g 24
uA
y4
c
g13
uB
y3
c

41

Now putting,
yA = max{ y2 , y4 } ,

yB = max{ y1 , y3 }

we have, c = g13 + g24 + L L + c (yA + yB)

By rearranging,

1 ( y A yB )
L
L
In general, c
or
c

1 ( yi )
1

Y
i = phase
i
42

Y should be less than unity.

Otherwise, no c is possible. In
practice Y0.75. Higher the
value of Y higher is the
degree of saturation and
greater the expected delays.
There are a number of ways
of reducing excessively high Y
values by reducing y values.
43

To Reduce y Values
Provide extra lanes (or greater road
width) for a through movement
Provide separate turn phases
Ban parking near intersection
Ban one or more turning movements,
especially those turns to be made
against a busy opposing traffic stream
Provide slip lanes for unopposed turns,
or allow such turns during red period
when safe to do so
44

To Increase
Capacity
g

Increasie the ratio

c capacity of one
This will increase the
movement but take the capacity away from
other movements
Increase the cycle time c,
G = gi and G = c L. As lost time L is a
constant for a given signal timing design,
fewer cycles
per hour means fewer lost
time per hour. However, increased cycle times
means increased delays for all movements
Increasing the saturation flow si, e.g. with
more but narrower lanes
45

Optimum Cycle Time

Optimum cycle time c0 given by the empirical
relationship,

1.5L 5
c0
1 Y

Y y i max
i

(25s Y
120s)
y i max
gi
(c 0 L )
Y

L = Total Lost Time

46

47

 Example 3. At a 4 arm intersection, the left

turn vehicles comprise 20 % of the total
lane flow. Two right turn vehicles can wait
within the intersection without delay to
following vehicles. The intergreen period is
5 s. Amber time during intergreen period is
3 s. Start and end lost times are 2 s per
green period. All approaches are level and
the radius of all turning paths is 20 m.
What is the optimum cycle time for this
intersection? The design hour traffic
volumes are given in the tables.
48

North approach, straight ahead and left turning

Light vehicles
500
Medium goods vehicles
100
Buses
10
Motor cycles
20
Approach width (m)
3.0
North approach right turning
Light vehicles
50
Medium goods vehicles
10
Buses
0
Motor cycles
10
Approach width (m)
3.0
49

South approach, straight ahead and left turning

Light vehicles
400
Medium goods vehicles
150
Buses
0
Motor cycles
30
Approach width (m)
3.0
South approach right turning
Light vehicles
40
Medium goods vehicles
30
Buses
0
Motor cycles
5
Approach width (m)
3.0
50

West approach, straight ahead and left turning

Light vehicles
400
Medium goods vehicles
50
Buses
5
Motor cycles
10
Approach width (m)
3.65
West approach right turning
Light vehicles
300
Medium goods vehicles
60
Buses
0
Motor cycles
20
Approach width (m)
3.65
51

East approach, straight ahead and left turning

Light vehicles
200
Medium goods vehicles
1800
Buses
4
Motor cycles
15
Approach width (m)
3.65
East approach right turning
Light vehicles
260
Medium goods vehicles
20
Buses
0
Motor cycles
10
Approach width (m)
3.65
52

Solution
Convert the traffic flows into pcus by
applying conversion factors, car =
1.0, med. goods = 1.5, bus=2.0, motor cycle
Movement
pcu
= 0.4.

North approach, straight ahead and left turning

North approach right turning
South approach, straight ahead and left turning
South approach right turning
West approach, straight ahead and left turning
West approach right turning
East approach, straight ahead and left turning
East approach right turning

678
69
637
87
489
398
484
294

53

It can be seen from the approach

traffic flows that there are three
major traffic movements which
are,
North/South, all directions of movement
East/West, straight ahead and left turning
movements
East/West, right turning movements

Each of these major movements

can be given a separate phase.
(See figures)
54

Phase
1
55

Phase
2
56

Phase
3
57

For non-opposed flows

North approach ahead and left turn
(nearside)

s 0 2080 100 3.0 3.25 2055 pcu / h

s1

2055 140

0.2
1 1.5
20

1887 pcu / h

South approach ahead and left turn

(nearside) (same as North approach
ahead and left turn)
s 1887 pcu / h
1

58

West approach ahead and left turn (nearside)

s0 2080 100 3.65 3.25 2120 pcu / h

s1

2120 140

1951 pcu / h
0.2
1 1 .5
20

East approach ahead and left turn (nearside)

(same as West approach ahead and left turn)

s1 1951 pcu / h
59

West approach right turn (non-nearside)

s0 2080 100 3.65 3.25 2120 pcu / h

s1

2120

1
1 1.5
20

1972 pcu / h

East approach right turn (non-nearside)

(same as West approach right turn)

s1 1972 pcu / h
60

For opposed flows

South approach right turn flow (non- nearside)

s2 sg sc

s0 230
sg
1 T 1 f
3600
sc P1 N S fxO
uc
s0 2055 same as straight ahead
0.2

61

t1

2
Opp

12 x

1 0.61 f N S

assume

xO 0.75

12 0.75
t1
6.75
1 0.61 1 2
2

t 2 1 fxOpp 1 1 0.75 0.44

2

1.5 t1
1.5 6.75
T 1
1

16.42
r t2
20 0.44
62


2055 230
sg
111 pcu / h
1 16.42 11
87
P
1.16 pcu / veh
75
Assume effective green time 30 s
sc 1.161 2 1 0.75 3600 / 30 393 pcu / h
0.2

s2 s g sc 111 393 504 pcu / h

63

North approach right turn flow (non- nearside)

s 2 s g sc

s0 230
sg
1 T 1 f
3600
sc P1 N S fxOpp
uc
s0 2055 same as straight ahead
0.2

64

t1

2
Opp

12 x

1 0.61 f N S

assume

xO 0.75

12 0.75
t1
6.75
1 0.61 1 2
2

t 2 1 fxOpp 1 1 0.75 0.44

2

1.5 t1
1.5 6.75
T 1
1

16.42
r t2
20 0.44
65


2055 230
sg
111 pcu / h
1 16.42 11
69
P
0.99 pcu / veh
70
Assume effective green time 30 s
sc 0.991 2 1 0.75 3600 / 30 200 pcu / h
0 .2

s2 s g sc 111 200 311 pcu / h

66

Movements, Flows, Saturation flows and

y values
Movement
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H

Flow
678
69
637
87
489
398
484
294

Saturation Flow
1887
311
1887
504
1951
1972
1951
1972

y
0.36
0.22
0.34
0.17
0.25
0.20
0.25
0.15

67

Phase
Movements
ymax

1
2
3
A ,B,C,D
E, G
F,H
0.36
0.25
0.20
Total ymax = Y= 0.81

Total Lost Time (L)

Intergreen period
=5s
Amber time
=3s
Lost time during each intergreen period = 2 s
Start and End Lost Time during green period= 2 s
Lost Time per Phase
=4s
Total Lost Time per Cycle
=12 s

68

1.5L 5 1.5 12 5
CO

121 s
1 Y
1 .81

say120 s

Intergreen Period
=5s
Available total green time = 120-3x5
= 105 s
Now distribute green time 105 s among
the phases in the yi/Y ratio.

69

0.36 105
y1
47 s
0.81
0.20 105
y3
26 s
0.81
0.25 105
y2
32 s
0.81
70