How Do We Sense the World?

The only input our brains receive from the real world is a series of action
potentials passed along the neurons of our various sensory pathways.
The sensation we perceive is via a labeled line systeme.g. only visual information
comes from the eyes, only auditory information comes from the ears.

Sensory receptors are transducers. Transduction is

the conversion of a physical energy (such as light
or pressure) into neural activity (such as a receptor
(graded) potential) or action potential.
Each sensory systems receptors are designed to
respond only to a narrow band of energy:
Vision: light energy
Auditory (hearing): air pressure
Somatosensory (touch): skin pressure

Features of Sensory Systems

Sensory
system

Modality

Stimulus
energy

Receptor class

Receptor cell types

Visual

Vision

Light

Photoreceptor

Rods, cones

Auditory

Hearing

Sound

Mechanoreceptor

Hair cells (cochlea)

Gravity

Mechanoreceptor

Hair cells (vestibular labyrinth)

Vestibular Balance

Somatosensory

Touch

Pressure

Mechanoreceptor

Cutaneous mechanoreceptors

Proprioception

Displacement

Mechanoreceptor

Muscle and joint receptors

Temperature
sense

Thermal

Thermoreceptor

Cold and warm receptors

Pain

Chemical,
thermal, or
mechanical

Chemoreceptor,
thermoreceptor, or
mechanoreceptor

Thermal and mechanical

nociceptors

Gustatory Taste

Chemical

Chemoreceptor

Taste buds

Olfactory

Chemical

Chemoreceptor

Olfactory sensory neurons

Smell

Sensory Pathways
Primary somatic
sensory cortex

Gustatory cortex

Olfactory cortex
Olfactory bulb

Auditory
cortex
Visual
cortex

Olfactory pathways from

the nose project through
the olfactory bulb to the
olfactory cortex.

Eye
2

Most sensory pathways project

to the thalamus. The thalamus
modifies and relays information
to cortical centers.

Equilibrium pathways project

primarily to the cerebellum.

Nose

Cerebellum

Thalamus

Sound

Equilibrium
3
Tongue

Somatic
senses

Labeled Lines

Receptors in Skin: in addition to labeled lines,

there are different receptor types for different sensations.

The Structure and Function of the Pacinian Corpuscle

Identifying Somatosensory Receptive Fields (the part of the world to which the
receptor responds)

Structural basis of the receptive field of receptors for the sense of touch.
The receptive field of a touch-sensitive neuron in the skin includes the sensory
transduction apparatus in the nerve terminals and the surrounding skin in which the
terminals are located.
A patch of skin contains many overlapping
receptive fields innervated by individual
sensory nerve fibers. When this region is
touched, spikes are initiated at the node of
Ranvier closest to the nerve terminals in
the skin.
They are conducted past the
cell body, located in the dorsal
root ganglion, to the synaptic
terminals in the spinal cord.

Sensory Adaptation

Receptor morphology influences adaptation in rapidly adapting

mechanoreceptors.
Pacinian corpuscles are sensitive
to vibration. The nerve ending is
wrapped with many layers of
connective tissue. Rapid
movements are transmitted
through the lamellae to the
nerve terminal, generating a
receptor potential and action
potential
for each
vibratory
During steady
pressure,
the outer
cycle.
layers of the capsule are
compressed and absorb the
static load. So the compression
only reaches the nerve terminal
at the on and the off.
When stimulus goes on and off, the
receptor responds every time. It
follows the stimulus faithfully,
detecting a vibration.

Adaptationthe progressive loss of receptor sensitivity as stimulation is

maintained.

Phasic receptorsdisplay adaptation and

decrease frequency of action potentials.
Adaptationthe progressive loss of
receptor sensitivity as stimulation is
maintained
Phasic receptorsdisplay adaptation
and decrease frequency of action
potentials
Tonic receptorsshow slow or no
decline in action potential frequency

Tonic receptorsshow slow or no decline

in action potential frequency.

Skin

Primary neuron
response is proportional
to stimulus strength.

Primary
sensory
neurons

Pathway closest to
the stimulus inhibits
neighbors.

Secondary
neurons

Inhibition of lateral
neurons enhances
perception of stimulus.

Tertiary
neurons
A

Frequency of action potentials

Stimulus
Pin

Frequency of action potentials

Lateral inhibition enhances contrast and makes a stimulus easier to perceive

Stimulus

C
Tonic level

With sharp pressure, center primary

receptor (B) is activated the most and
neighboring receptors (A&C) are
stimulated less.
Action potential frequency of cell B
increases above the tonic (background,
existing) level. A&C also increase their
activity above the tonic level but less so
(top graph).
Each secondary neuron inhibits its
neighbor (see minus signs). (Not
shown: A&C also inhibit B but less so
because they are less activated).

C
Tonic level

The stark difference between B (above tonic level) and A&C (below tonic
level) exaggerates the differences between them and emphasizes the location
of the original stimulus.

Tertiary neuron B is the only one

receiving neurotransmitter from its
associated secondary neuron (purple
dots) and so its activity remains above
the tonic level (bottom graph). By
contrast, tertiary neurons A and C are
actually suppressed below the tonic
level.

This is why it feels good to rub the area around an injuryit suppresses the activity of the center (injured)
pathway.

Convergence of primary sensory neurons onto secondary sensory neurons

decreases sensitivity by increasing the receptive field size of secondary
sensory neurons.
(a)
Compass with points
separated by 20 mm

Skin surface

Primary
sensory
neurons
Secondary
sensory
neurons
One signal goes to the brain.

a. With convergence of the sensory input, two points separated by 20 mm is

interpreted as a single point. Seen in less sensitive body locations
such as the arms or legs.
b. With no convergence, two points are interpreted as separate. Seen in
more sensitive body locations such as the fingertips.

The density of sensory receptors in the retina and the size of the
receptive field for each receptor determine the resolution of a visual
image.
If there are a small number of receptors and each spans a large area of the
scene, the result is a fuzzy, very schematic representation of the scene.
As the density of receptors increases, and the size of the receptive field of each
receptor decreases, the spatial detail becomes clearer.

Analogous to skin
density on:

20X20

120X120

However, the increased resolution comes

at the cost of enlarging the total size of
the receptor population.
60X60

400X400

The brain resolves the conflict between

information overload from a huge
number of receptors and the need for
resolution of spatial detail by having a
higher density of receptors in regions of
the body where high resolution of detail
is behaviorally important and using
progressively lower numbers of receptors
in surrounding regions.

Representation of the Body Surface in Somatosensory Cortex

Homunculus: figure at right shows what the human body would look like if the density of
touch receptors on various parts of the body determined the size of that region.
Each part of the body is drawn in proportion to its relative density of touch perception.
The face (and especially the tongue and lips) is large compared with the arms and legs; the
index finger is gigantic compared with the big toe, and the torso has the smallest area of all.

The Arrangement of Muscles around the Elbow

The Innervation of Muscle

Motoneurons of the spinal cord and
brain stem send their axons to
innervate muscles.
Action potentials travel down the
motoneuron to the neuromuscular
junctionwhere the motoneuron
terminal and the muscle fiber meet.
The neurotransmitter acetylcholine
(ACh) is released.

The Innervation of Muscle

Skeletal muscles are made of

striate muscle.

Overlapping layers of proteins myosin and actin give a striped

appearance.
Contraction of the muscle increase the overlap of actin and
myosin filaments within muscle fibers.
As they slide past each other the muscle shortens.

Muscle Receptors

Proprioception is the collection of

information about body movements and
position.
Two kinds of proprioceptors:
Muscle spindlea capsule buried in
other muscle fibers that contains
intrafusal fibersrespond to stretch.
o

If a muscle is stretched, the

muscle spindle also stretches and
triggers action potentials in
afferent sensory nerves.

The spinal cord and brain are

informed about the extent and
rate of stretch, and the load.

Golgi tendon organs are sensitive to muscle tension.

o

The primary function of Golgi tendon organs is to monitor the force of

muscle contractions.

They also detect overloads on muscles and cause a reflexive relaxing of

the muscle, preventing damage.

Muscle Receptors

Muscle spindle mediated reflex causes muscle to contract in response to stretch

Golgi tendon organ mediated reflex causes muscle to relax in response to being contracted

Although the tendon reflex is less sensitive than the stretch reflex, it can
override the stretch reflex when tension is great, making you drop a very
heavy weight, for example.

Primary Motor Cortex

Similar to the somatosensory cortex, there is a cortical representation of
the parts of the body controlled by neurons in the primary motor cortex.

Precentral gyrus
(motor)

Postcentral gyrus
(sensory)

Mirror Neurons: neurons in the premotor area (rostral to the primary motor cortex)
fire in anticipation of movement.
These neurons fire just before a monkey makes a movement.

But they also fire when the monkey sees another monkey
(or human) make the same movement. Monkey is imagining
making the movement.
Neurons dont fire if viewed movement is
random, and not goal-based.
Mirror neurons may be a part of
a system to analyze the behavior
of others (empathy neurons).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xmx1qPyo8Ks