Microprocessor

The microprocessor, also known as the Central Processing Unit

(CPU), is the brain of all computers and many household and

electronic devices.
A microprocessor (sometimes abbreviated P) is a digital
electronic component with miniaturized transistors on a single
semiconductor integrated circuit (IC).
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:
Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor

can execute.
Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed
determines how many instructions per second the processor can
execute.

 Microprocessor is defined as a silicon chip embedded with a

Central Processing Unit or CPU. It is also referred to as a

computer's logic chip, micro chip, and processor.
A microprocessor is a programmable VLSI chip which
controls and performs all operations in a microcomputer. Its
main units are ALU
Registers
Control Unit

Function :
The main function of a Microprocessor is to
conduct arithmetic and logic operations.

History of Microprocessor
The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004,

introduced in 1971. The 4004 was not very

powerful; it was primarily used to perform
simple
mathematical
operations
in
a
calculator called Busicom.

Evolution of
Microprocessor
Microprocessors were categorized into five generations :
first, second, third, fourth, and fifth generations. Their
characteristics are described below:
First Generation:
The microprocessors that were introduced in 1971 to

1972 were referred to as the first generation systems.

First generation microprocessors processed their
instructions seriallythey fetched the instruction,
decoded it, then executed it. When an instruction was
completed, the microprocessor updated the instruction
pointer and fetched the next instruction, performing this
sequential drill for each instruction in turn.

Second Generation:
16

bit arithmetic and pipelined instruction processing.

Motorolas MC68000 microprocessor, introduced in 1979, is an
example. Another example is Intels 8080. This generation is
defined by overlapped fetch, decode, and execute steps.
As the first instruction is processed in the execution unit, the
second instruction is decoded and the third instruction is
fetched.

The distinction between the first and second generation devices

was primarily the use of newer semiconductor technology to

fabricate the chips. This new technology resulted in a fivefold
increase in instruction, execution, speed, and higher chip
densities.

Third Generation:
The third generation, introduced in 1978, was represented

by Intels 8086 and the Zilog Z8000, which were 16bit

processors with minicomputer like performance.
The third generation came about as IC transistor counts
approached 250,000.
Fourth Generation:
As the workstation companies converted from commercial
microprocessors to in house designs, microprocessors
entered their fourth generation with designs surpassing a
million transistors. Leading edge microprocessors such as
Intels 80960CA and Motorolas 88100 could issue and retire
more than one instruction per clock cycle.

Fifth Generation:
Microprocessors in their fifth generation,
employed decoupled super scalar processing,
and their design soon surpassed 10 million
transistors. In this generation, PCs are a low
margin, high volume business dominated by a
single microprocessor.

Classification of Microprocessor:
The microprocessor is identified with the word size of data. For

E.g. The ALU can perform a 4bit data operation at a time these
microprocessor is called as 4 bit microprocessor.
4 - Bit Processors
INTEL 404 4040

8 - Bit Processors
8008, 8080, 8085, MOTOROLA 6800 (M6800)

16 - Bit Processors
8086, 8088, Zilog Z80,0 80186, 80286

32 - Bit Processors
Intel 80386, 80387, 80486 PENTIUM PENTIUM PRO

64- Bit Processors

Intel 64

Advantages of
Microprocessor
Speed:

One advantage of a Microprocessor is its speed, which is

measured in hertz. For instance, a Microprocessor with 3

gigahertz, shortly GHz, is capable of performing 3 billion
tasks per second.
Data Movement:
Another advantage of a Microprocessor is that it can
quickly move data between the various memory
locations.
Complex Mathematics:
Microprocessors are used to perform complicated
mathematical operations, like operating on the floating
point numbers.

Disadvantages of
Microprocessor
Some of the disadvantages with the

Microprocessor are that it might get

overheated.
And the limitation it imposes on the size of
data.

Microprocessors are a mass storage device. The

availability of low cost, low power and small

weight, computing capability makes it useful in
different applications.
Instrumentation: It is also used in medical
instrumentation.
Control: Microprocessor based controllers are
available in home appliances, such as microwave
oven, washing machine etc., microprocessors are
being used in controlling various parameters like
speed, pressure, temperature etc.

Communication:
Microprocessors are being used in a wide range of

communication equipments. In telephone industry,

these are used in digital telephone sets.
Telephone exchanges and modem etc.
The use of microprocessor in television, satellite
communication have made teleconferencing possible.
Railway reservation and air reservation system also
uses this technology.
LAN and WAN for communication of vertical
information through computer network.

 Consumer:
The use of microprocessor in toys, entertainment equipment and

home applications is making them more entertaining and full of

features.

Now the Microprocessors are used in :

1. Calculators
2. Accounting system
3. Games machine
4. Automotive Industry
5. Traffic light Control
6. Data acquisition systems
7. Military applications

(1)UAV
Motion

DSP's Ikena ISR product uses

algorithms to enhance video with cleaner detail,
increased resolution, and reduced noise, making
it well suited for real-time streaming of high
quality video from unmanned aerial vehicle
(UAV) sensors. By harnessing Nvidia Tesla
GPUs, the software can process 30 frames per
second, with less than 300 milliseconds latency.
Image processing
Signal processing

(2) CFD
Nvidia's GPUs are actively being adopted in

aerospace and defence data centres as well as

in electronics systems on the battlefield. Its
Tesla brand GPUs are designed to meet
computational requirements in data centres
and
high-performance
computing
environments, as well as to deliver
performance increases for a variety of
applications, including computational fluid
dynamics,
video
processing,
synthetic
aperture radar (SAR), and electromagnetic.

(3) Military
Xilinx

integrated
processors
and
embedded
processing solutions are used in missiles and
munitions, for target tracking
military
communications,
for
black
side
modem
operations and electronic warfare/intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance (EW/ISR),
such as radar algorithm processing.
Demand for optimized SWaPC products is also
growing, along with the UAV market. "The need for
small, lightweight, fan less products will drive the
development of microprocessors over the next
several decades,"

(4) Helicopter
The Apache helicopter and airborne and

land based combat vehicles employs the

company's COBALT with an on board 8 port
GigE switch, as well as an 80 gigabyte, solid
state drive and a Kontron Core2Duo single
board computer. COBALT is a small,
lightweight computing device based on
Kontron's COM Express single board
computer offering fan less operation and a
Gigabit Ethernet interface.

(5)Satellite application
The first generation, single board computer was a rad

hard version of a MILSTD 1750 processor followed

by the RAD6000, a rad hard version of an IBM RISC
System 6000 processor. The current generation
RAD750, a rad hard version of an IBM PowerPC 750
processor, is adopted for satellite single board
computers
serving
command
and
control
functions and onboard payload processing. The
Advanced Extremely High Frequency satellite, a U.S.
Department of Defence (DOD) secured communications
satellite, uses two RAD6000 computers for satellite
control and eight RAD750 computers for the payload.

(6)TCAS
(Navigation
TCAS has a self
test capability to perform
Initiated Built-in Test (IBIT) and Periodic BuiltSystem)
in Test (PBIT) to monitor the operational status
of itself and its interfacing equipment.
DME
TACCAN

MIP7965, 64bit Superscaler

750MHz MIPS Microprocessor
Extended temperature characterized PMCSierra

RM7965 microprocessor
Dual
Issue
symmetric
superscalar
microprocessor
with
instruction
prefetch
optimized for system level price/performance
High
performance
interface
(RM70xx
compatible)(E9000 core)
Integrated primary and secondary caches all
are 4way set associative with 32 byte line size
Packaged in a 256TBGA plastic package

MIP7365, 64bit
Superscaler 450MHz MIPS
Microprocessor
Extended temperature characterized PMCSierra

RM7065 microprocessor
Dual Issue symmetric superscalar
microprocessor with instruction prefetch
optimized for system level price/performance
High performance interface (RM70xx
compatible)(E7000 core)
Integrated primary and secondary caches all
are 4way set associative with 32 byte line size
Packaged in a 216Epad plastic package

ACT7000ASC
64Bit
Superscaler Microprocessor
Full militarized PMCSierra RM7000A microprocessor
Dual Issue symmetric superscalar microprocessor

with instruction prefetch optimized for system

level price/performance
High performance interface (RM52xx compatible)
Integrated primary and secondary caches all are
4way set associative with 32 byte line size
Packaged in a 208lead Ceramic Quad Flatpack
Packaged in a 208lead Ceramic Quad Flatpack,
inverted footprint (cavity down)

Future functionality
Anemone processor
OpenVPX module processor

Examples with
Explanation
Intel 8085
Intel 8086
Intel 8080

8085 pin diagram

Module II- 8085 Pins

For complete understanding of the interfacing circuits of

memory, I/O devices etc. to the 8085 CPU it is required

to learn about the functions of all the pins of 8085. The
pins of 8085 are classified in following groups:
Address and Data pins
Control & status pins
Interrupt pins
Serial I/O pins
Clock pins
Reset pins
DMA pins
Power supply pins

Pin description
Higher Order Address pins- A 15 A8
Lower Order Address/ Data Pins- AD 7-AD0
These are time multiplexed pins and are de-multiplexed using

the pin ALE

Control Pins RD, WR

These are active low Read & Write pins

Status Pins ALE, IO/M (active low), S 1, S0

ALE (Address Latch Enable)-Used to de-multiplex AD 7-AD0
IO/M Used to select I/O or Memory operation
S1,S0 Denote the status of data on data bus

Interrupt Pins TRAP, RST7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, INTR, INTA
These are hardware interrupts used to initiate an interrupt

service routine stored at predefined locations of the system

memory.

Serial I/O pins SID (Serial Input Data), SOD (Serial Output

Data)

These pins are used to interface 8085 with a serial device.

Pin Description Contd.

Clock Pins- X1, X2, CLK(OUT)
X1, X2- These are clock input pins. A crystal is connected

between these pins such that fcrystal= 2f8085 where fcrystal=

crystal frequency & f8085 = operating frequency of 8085
CLK(OUT) This is an auxiliary clock output source

Reset Pins Reset In

(active low),

Reset Out

Reset In is used to reset 8085 whereas Reset Out can

be used to reset other devices in the system

DMA (Direct Memory Access) pins HOLD, HLDA

These pins are used when data transfer is to be

performed directly between an external device and the

main memory of the system.

Power Supply Pins - +VCC, VSS

Intel 8086

Memory Classification