Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(ECS-087)
Anurag Malik
Associate Professor
CE & IT Dept. M.I.T Moradabad
B.Tech VIII CS / IT
UNIT II
Recommended Books:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Wireless Networking
While the term wireless network may technically be used to refer to any type
of network that is wireless, the term is most commonly used to refer to a
telecommunications network whose interconnections between nodes is
implemented without the use of wires, such as a computer network (which is a
type of communications network).
Wireless telecommunications networks are generally implemented with some
type of remote information transmission system that uses electromagnetic
waves, such as radio waves, for the carrier and this implementation usually
takes place at the physical level or "layer" of the network.
Types of Wireless Networking
Wireless LAN : Similar to other wireless devices, it uses radio instead of wires
to transmit data back and forth between computers on the same network. .
Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a commonly used wireless network in computer systems which
enable connection to the internet or other machines that have Wi-Fi
functionalities. Wi-Fi networks broadcast radio waves that can be picked up by
Wi-Fi receivers that are attached to different computers or mobile phones.
Fixed Wireless Data: Fixed wireless data is a type of wireless data network
that can be used to connect two or more buildings together in order to extend
or share the network bandwidth without physically wiring the buildings together.
Types of Wireless
Networking
WLAN
IEEE 802.13ah:-Defines "Copper for the first mile" for Metro Area Networks (proposed)
IEEE 802.14 Cable modems (disbanded)
IEEE 802.15 Wireless PAN
Advantages Of Wireless
Network
Advantages Of Wireless
Network
Advantages Of Wireless
Network
Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without
Disadvantages Of Wireless
Network
Security: Wireless LAN transceivers are designed to serve
computers
throughout a structure with uninterrupted service using radio frequencies.
Because of space and cost, the antennas typically present on wireless
networking cards in the end computers are generally relatively poor. In order to
properly receive signals using such limited antennas throughout even a
modest area, the wireless LAN transceiver utilizes a fairly considerable amount
of power.
Range: The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard
equipment is on the order of tens of meters. While sufficient for a typical home,
it will be insufficient in a larger structure. To obtain additional range, repeaters
or additional access points will have to be purchased. Costs for these items
can add up quickly.
Reliability: Like any radio frequency transmission, wireless networking
signals are subject to a wide variety of interference, as well as complex
propagation effects that are beyond the control of the network administrator. In
the case of typical networks, modulation is achieved by complicated forms of
phase-shift keying (PSK) or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), making
interference and propagation effects all the more disturbing. As a result,
important network resources such as servers are rarely connected wirelessly.
Speed: The speed on most wireless networks (typically 1-108 Mbit/s) is
reasonably slow compared to the slowest common wired networks (100 Mbit/s
up to several Gbit/s). There are also performance issues caused by TCP and
its built-in congestion avoidance.
10
Disadvantages of Wireless
Network
Quality of services: WLAN's typically offers lower quality than their wired
counterparts. The main reason for this drawback are the lower bandwidth
due to limitations in the radio transmission (e.g., only 1-10 M bits/s), higher
error rates due to inference and higher delay or delay variations.
Cost: While, The cost of wireless interface, cost more their counterpart in
wired LAN.
Proprietary solutions: Due to slow standardization procedure, many
companies have come up with propriety solutions offering standardized
functionality plus many enhanced features. However the additional feature
only work in a homogeneous environment.
Restrictions: All wireless products have to comply with national
regulations. Several government and non-governmental institutions
worldwide regulates the operation and restrict frequencies to minimize
interference.
11
Wireless Network
Architecture
Stations
All components that can connect into a wireless medium in a network
are referred to as stations.
All stations are equipped with wireless network interface cards
(WNICs).
Wireless stations fall into one of two categories:
1.Wireless access point [1 access points and 2.clients].
1.Access point
Access points (APs) are base stations for the wireless network.
They transmit and receive radio frequencies for wireless enabled
devices to communicate with.
2.Clients
Wireless clients can be mobile devices such as laptops, personal
digital assistants, IP phones, or fixed devices such as desktops and
workstations that are equipped with a wireless network interface.
12
Types of WLAN
13
Types of WMAN
14
15
16
17
Because Ad Hoc Mode does not require an access point, it's easier to
set up, especially in a small or temporary network.
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Bits
80
Synchronization
PLCP Preamble
16
SFD
12
PLW
PSF
16
HEC
variable
Payload
PLCP Header
33
Bits
128
Synchronization
PLCP Preamble
16
SFD
Signal
8
Service
16
Length
16
variable
HEC
Payload
PLCP Header
34
35
36
37
38
Bytes
Frame
Control
Bits
2
Protocol
Version
Duration ID
4
Type
Address 1
1
Subtype
Address 2
1
To
DS
1
From
DS
Address 3
Sequence
Control
1
MoreFr
ag
1
Retry
Address 4
1
Power
Mgmt
0 2312
Data
CRC
1
MoreDa
ta
WEP
Order
39
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
40
41
42
43
44
45
IEEE 802.11b
frequency:
transmission power:
reach:
46
Comparison
Parameters
Standards 802.11
802.11
802.11b
802.11a / h
802.11g
Frequency
band, GHz
2,4 (ISM-Band)
2,4 (ISM-Band)
5,1
2,4 (ISM-Band)
1-11
11
54
54
Use field
building, territory
building, territory
in the buildings
building, territory
Deployment
End 1990
actually
Since 2000
Available Hardware
Data security
WEP
none
Problematic
National restrictions
Pre-standard
47
The main question in connection with MAC in the wireless is whether it is possible to use
elaborate Medium Access Control(MAC) schemes from the wired networks, for example
CSMA/CD as used in the original specification of IEEE 802.3 networks(Ethernet)
Considering the carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) which
works as follows. A sender senses the medium(a wire or a coaxial cable) to see if it is
free. If the medium is busy, the sender waits until it is free. If the medium is free, the
sender starts transmitting data and continues to listen into the medium. If the sender
now detects a collision while sending. , it stops at once and sends a jamming signal.
But the scheme fails in wireless network. CSMA/CD is not really interested in collision at
the sender, but rather in those at the receiver. The signal should reach the receiver
without collisions. But sender is the one detecting collision. This is not a problem using
wires, as more or less the same signal strength can be assumed all over the wire. If a
collision occurs somewhere in the wire, everybody will notice it. The situation is dierent
in wireless networks. The strength of a signal decrease proportionally to the square of
the distance to the sender. The sender may now apply carrier sense and detect an idle
medium. Thus, the sender starts sending- but a collision happens at the receiver due to
second sender. but the sender wont know the collision due to hidden terminal problem
see section ??. The same can happen to the collision detection. The sender detects no
collision, assumes that data has been transmitted without errors, but actually a collision
might have destroyed the data at the receiver. Thus, this very common MAC scheme
from wired network fails in wireless scenario.
48
Bluetooth
History
The developers of this wireless technology
49
What is Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a universal radio interface, operates on 79 channels in the
2.4 GHz frequency band with 1 Mhz carrier spacing that enables electronic
devices to connect and communicate wirelessly via short-range (10-100
m), ad-hoc networks.
Key Features :
Simple, cheap, replacement of IrDA, low range, lower data rates( 2.4
GHz, FHSS, TDD, CDMA)
50
environment of intelligent
networked devices
Cordless
headset
mouse
Cell
phone
Started as a Cable
replacement technology
System Challenges
52
53
Device Addressing
54
Why Scatternets
55
Inter-piconet communication
A unit may participate in more
than one piconet on a TDM basis.
To participate on a piconet it
needs the masters identity and the
clock offset.
While leaving the piconet it
informs the master.
The master can also multiplex as
slave on another piconet. But all
traffic in its piconet will suspended
in its absence.
56
System Architecture
Applications
TCS BIN BNEP
SDP
IP
RFCOMM
Co
Data
ntr
ol
TCP/UDP
L2CAP
Audio
Link Manager
Baseband
RF
Bluetooth Protocol Stack
System Architecture
The core protocols of Bluetooth comprise the following elements:
Radio: Specification of the air interface, i.e. frequencies, modulation and
transmit power.
Baseband: Description of basic connection establishment, packet formats,
timing and basic QoS parameters (Bandwidth, Latency, Error rate.
Link manager Protocol: Link set-up and management between devices
including security functions and parameter negotiation. Link Manager
handles
- Piconet management (attach/detach slaves, master- slave switch)
- Link Configuration (low power modes, QoS, packet
type selection)
- Authentication, pairing, encryption, synchronization, capability negotiation,
QoS negotiation, Power control
Logical Link Control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP): Adaptation of
higher layers to the baseband (connection & connection-oriented services) .
Its functions include
1. Protocol multiplexing
2. Segmentation and reassembly
3. QoS specifications
4. Signalling channel for connection request, config etc
Service Discovery Protocol: Devices discovery in close proximity plus
querying of service characteristics.
58
Higher layers
SDP : Service Discovery Protocol runs on a client server model. Each
device runs only one SDP server and one client may be run for each
application.
59
60
Bluetooth Profiles
A Bluetooth profile is a specification that defines the minimum requirements that the
Bluetooth device must support in a specific usage scenario. These requirements define
the end-user services and the features and procedures that the Bluetooth device must
support to enable interoperability with peer devices.
There are two types of profiles: conforming and interoperability. Conforming profiles
define the core requirements for Bluetooth devices and are available by default.
Interoperability profiles, which are based on the conforming profiles, define the minimum
requirements for Bluetooth devices to support specific applications. Bluetooth profiles
have implicit and explicit dependencies on each other.
To use Bluetooth wireless technology, a device shall be able to interpret certain
Bluetooth profiles, which are definitions of possible applications and specify general
behaviors that Bluetooth enabled devices use to communicate with other Bluetooth
devices. These profiles include settings to parameterize and to control the
communication from start. Adherence to profiles saves the time for transmitting the
parameters anew before the bi-directional link becomes effective. There are a wide
range of Bluetooth profiles that describe many different types of applications or use
cases for devices
ProfileDescription
Generic Access Profile (GAP) Defines the generic requirements for detecting and establishing a
connection to a Bluetooth device.
Generic Object Exchange Profile (GEOP) Defines procedures for the support of the
Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX) usage models.
Serial Port Profile (SPP) Defines procedures required for configuring serial cable connections
between peer Bluetooth devices using RFCOMM.
61
Frequency Hopping
Global Availability
License Free
2,400-2,483.5 MHz in
Europe and US
2,471-2,497 MHz in
Japan
Frequency Hopping
1Mhz
79
83.5 Mhz
63
Piconet Channel
Physical Link
65
Packets
66
Packet Format
72 bits 54 bits
Access
Header
code
prea
mble
sync
trailer
AM
addres
s
type
flow
0 - 2745 bits
Payload
ARQ
N
SEQ
N
HEC
ACL
data
header
SCO
Voice
CRC
67
Header
68
SYMMETRIC
(Kbps)
ASYMMETRI
C (Kbps)
108.8
108.8
108.8
DH1
172.8
172.8
172.8
DM3
256.0
384.0
54.4
DH3
384.0
576.0
86.4
DM5
286.7
477.8
36.3
DH5
432.6
721.0
57.6.
(unprotected)
69
Access Code
Error Correction/Flow
Control
Error Correction
- 1/3 FEC
- 2/3 FEC
- ARQ (Retransmit till Ack is received/ timeout)
Flow Control
- FIFO queues at TX and RX
- If RX queue is full the flow control bit is set in the
header of the next packet sent. - The TX freezes its FIFO
queue till the bit is reset.
71
Bluetooth Connection
Establishment
Inquiry : Uses the Inquiry hop sequence and the IAC (DIAC or
GIAC). If a device wants to establish a piconet, a user of the device
wants to scan for other devices in the radio range. The device starts
the inquiry procedure by sending an inquiry access code (IAC) that
is common to all Bluetooth devices and IAC is broadcast over 32 so
called wake-up carriers in turn. Devices in standby that listen
periodically may enter the inquiry mode periodically to search for
IAC messages on wake-up carriers. As soon as a device detects an
inquiry it returns a packet containing its device address and timing
info required by the master to initiate a connection. From that
moment on the device acts as a slave. If the inquiry was successful,
a device enters the page mode.
72
Bluetooth Connection
Establishment
Paging : Uses the Paging hop sequence and the DAC of the
device to be paged. After finding all required devices the
master is able to set up connections to each devices, i.e.
setting up a piconet. Depending on the device addresses
received the master calculates special hopping sequences to
contact each device individually. The slaves answer and
synchronize with the masters clock, i.e. start with the hopping
sequence defined by the master. The master may continue to
page more devices that will be added to the piconet. As soon
as a device synchronize to the hopping pattern of the piconet it
also enters the connection state.
73
Inquiry
Inquiry pkt
Inquiry Scan
FHS pkt
Device A
Inquiry Response
Device B
74
Slave
Page pkt
Page Scan
ID pkt
Master Page
Response
Assigns active
addr
FHS pkt
ID pkt
Slave Page
Response
Uses FHS to get
CAC and clk info
POLL
NULL
Connected
Connected
75
Connection Establishment
times
Inquiry
Paging
Typical
5.12 s
0.64 s
Max
15.36 s
7.38 s
Connected
76
Connection Modes
Intra-piconet communication
The master controls all traffic on the piconet
SCO link - reservation
The master allocates capacity for SCO links by reserving slots
in pairs.
ACL link polling scheme
The slave transmits in the slave-to-master slot only when it has
been addressed by its MAC address in the previous master-toslave slot. Therefore no collisions.
78
unconnected
Detach
page
inquiry
Transmit AMA
Park AMA
Connected AMA
Hold AMA
Sniff AMA
connecting
active
Low Power
79
80
82
should be selected.
Channel
Signal space is divided and assigned to each user.
Orthogonal (no interference among users)
Assignment (ex. frequency, time slot, code)Static
Assignment
Simple, but inefficient.Demand Assignment
Efficient, but circuit control function are required.
83
Classification
84
85
86
TCP functions
networks
than in wired.
TCP cannot distinguish problems that typically occur in wireless
networks from congestion. The congestion control algorithms in
TCP are based on the assumptions that data is lost mainly due to
congestion and that data loss due to transmission errors is rare .
Therefore, data loss is interpreted as a signal of congestion in the
network.
Even in a wireless network, where data loss may not be related to
congestion, data loss still signals congestion to the sender.
TCP segments may be lost if the radio conditions are poor and the
link layer protocol provides a low reliability. After some
retransmission attempts the link layer protocol gives up and leaves
further error recovery to TCP.
Handover events may also lead to data loss.
TCP may also misinterpret a sudden increase in the round trip time
as data loss. If the delay is long enough for the retransmission
timer to expire before an acknowledgment is received, then TCP
misinterprets the delay as an indication of data loss due to
congestion
88
start. A highly variable round trip time can also lead to a large RTO
(Retransmission Time Out), since the RTO is based both on estimates
of the round trip time and on variations in the round trip time. If the
RTO is large, then TCP reacts slowly to data loss.
Round trip time variations may also be caused by handover or
competing traffic.
Queuing in routers, base stations, and other intermediate nodes may
also lead to a long round trip time.
A long round trip time may cause low throughput and underutilization
of the network, since it takes a number of round trip times before the
congestion window reaches the capacity of the network.
TCP performance is degraded, especially for short lived flows, which
transmits a small amount of data
Larger bandwidth and delay variation make TCP estimate the RTO
value incorrectly.
Spurious transmissions due to the incorrect RTO value decrease the
TCP throughput.
89
Channel Losses:
Low Bandwidth
Signal Fading
Movement Across Cells
Channel Asymmetry
Link Latency
90
TCP Improvement
Wired Internet
Wireless TCP
Standard TCP
I-TCP segments a TCP connection into a fixed part and wireless. Mobile host
connected via a wireless link an access point to the wired internet where the
correspondent host resides. Standard TCP is used b/w the wired computer & the
access point. Instead of the mobile host, the access point now terminates the
standard TCP connection, acting as a proxy. This mean that the access point is now
seen as the mobile host for the fixed host & as the fixed host for mobile host. B/W
the access point & the mobile host, a special TCP, adapted to wireless links is used.
A handoff mechanism is proposed to handle the situation when the wireless host
moves across different cells.
Consequence- A consequence of using I-TCP is that the TCP Acks are not end-toend thereby violating the end-to-end semantics of TCP.
Hosts in the fixed part of the net do not notice the characteristics of the wireless
part.
92
Snooping TCP
Local Re-transmission
Correspondent Host
Foreign Agent
Wired Internet
Mobile Host
Snooping of ACKs
Buffering of Data
End-to-End TCP Connection
Snooping means secretive investigations into things that do not concern oneself. One of
the drawback of I-TCP is the segmentation of the single TCP connection into two TCP
connections. This loses the original end to end TCP semantic. The following TCP
enhancement i-e snooping TCP works completely transparently & hence doesnt loses
end-to-end semantic. The main function of the enhancement is buffering of packets close
to the mobile host to perform fast local retransmission in case of packet loss.
In this approach, Foreign agent buffers all packets with destination mobile host &
additionally snoops the packet flow in both directions to recognize acknowledgments.
Data transfer to the mobile host in snooping TCP takes place as follows:
The foreign FA agent buffers data until is receives an acknowledgement from the mobile host, FA
detects packet loss via duplicate ACKs or time-out and then perform faster retransmission compared to
the correspondent host, this all is transparent for the fixed n/w.
This would make the correspondent host believe that mobile host had received the
data & would violate the end-to-end semantic in case of a foreign agent failure data
transfer the mobile host with destination correspondent host works as follows as FA
snoops into the stream to detect gaps in the sequence no. of TCP. FA detects packet loss
on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA answers directly with a Nack to the MH.
MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay.
Adv. & Disadv
93
TCP Improvement
Mobile TCP (M-TCP) :-It has the same goals as I-TCP & snooping TCP i.e. It
also uses a split connection based approach but tries to preserve end-to-end
semantics. M-TCP adopts a three-level hierarchyAt the lowest level, mobile hosts communicate with mobile support stations in
each cell; which are in turn controlled by a supervisory host (SH); The SH is
connected to the wired n/w and serves as the point where the connections is
split.A TCP client exists at the SH.
The TCP client receives the segment from the TCP sender & passes it to M-TCP
client to send it to the wireless device. Thus, B/W the sender & the SH, standard
TCP is used while M-TCP is used b/w the SH & the wireless device. M-TCP is
designed to recover quickly from the wireless losses due to disconnections & to
eliminate serial timeouts. TCP on the SH does not acknowledge packets it
receive until the wireless device acknowledged then.
Fast retransmit / Fast recovery :As moving to a new foreign agent can cause packet loss or time out at mobile
hosts or corresponding hosts. TCP concludes congestion & goes into slow start,
although there is no congestion. The idea is to artificially force the fast retransmit
behavior on the mobile host & correspondent host side. As soon as the mobile
host registers at a new foreign agent using mobile IP, it starts sending duplicated
acknowledgements to correspondent hosts. The proposal is to send three
duplicates. This forces the correspondent host to go into fast retransmit mode.
94
Fast Retransmit
Fast Retransmit is an enhancement to TCP which reduces the time a sender waits
before retransmitting a lost segment.
A TCP sender uses a timer to recognize lost segments. If an acknowledgement is
not received for a particular segment within a specified time (a function of the
estimated Round-trip delay time), the sender will assume the segment was lost in
the network, and will retransmit the segment.
Duplicate acknowledgement is the basis for the fast retransmit mechanism which
works as follows: after receiving a packet (e.g. with sequence number 1), the
receiver sends an acknowledgement by adding 1 to the sequence number (i.e.,
sequence number 2) which means that the receiver receives the packet number 1
and it expects packet number 2 from the sender. Lets assume that three
subsequent packets have been lost. In the meantime the receiver receives the
packet number 5 and 6. After receiving packet number 5, the receiver sends
another acknowledgement, but still only for the sequence number 2. When the
receiver receives packet number 6, it sends yet another acknowledgement value of
2. In this way, the sender receives more than one acknowledgement with the same
sequence number 2 which is called duplicate acknowledgement.
The fast retransmit enhancement works as follows: if a TCP sender receives a
specified number of acknowledgements which is usually set to three duplicate
acknowledgements with the same acknowledge number (that is, a total of four
acknowledgements with the same acknowledgement number), the sender can be
reasonably confident that the segment with the next higher sequence number was
dropped, and will not arrive out of order. The sender will then retransmit the packet
that was presumed dropped before waiting for its timeout.
95
Fast Recovery
After fast retransmit sends what appears to be the missing segment, congestion avoidance,
but not slow start is performed. This is the fast recovery algorithm. It is an improvement that
allows high throughput under moderate congestion, especially for large windows.
The reason for not performing slow start in this case is that the receipt of the duplicate ACKs
tells TCP more than just a packet has been lost. Since the receiver can only generate the
duplicate ACK when another segment is received, that segment has left the network and is in
the receiver's buffer. That is, there is still data flowing between the two ends, and TCP does
not want to reduce the flow abruptly by going into slow start.
The fast retransmit and fast recovery algorithms are usually implemented together as follows.
1. When the third duplicate ACK in a row is received, set ssthresh to one-half the current
congestion window, cwnd, but no less than two segments. Retransmit the missing segment.
Set cwnd to ssthresh plus 3 times the segment size. This inflates the congestion window by
the number of segments that have left the network and which the other end has cached (3).
2. Each time another duplicate ACK arrives, increment cwnd by the segment size. This
inflates the congestion window for the additional segment that has left the network. Transmit
a packet, if allowed by the new value of cwnd.
3. When the next ACK arrives that acknowledges new data, set cwnd to ssthresh (the value
set in step 1). This ACK should be the acknowledgment of the retransmission from step 1,
one round-trip time after the retransmission. Additionally, this ACK should acknowledge all
the intermediate segments sent between the lost packet and the receipt of the first duplicate
ACK. This step is congestion avoidance, since TCP is down to one-half the rate it was at
when the packet was lost.
The fast retransmit algorithm first appeared in the 4.3BSD Tahoe release, and it was followed
by slow start. The fast recovery algorithm appeared in the 4.3BSD Reno release.
96
TCP Improvement
Transmission / Time-out freezing :- The MAC layer can inform the TCP layer of
an upcoming loss of connection or that the current interruption is not caused by
congestion. TCP can now stop sending and Freezes the current state of its
congestion window & further timers. If the MAC layer notices the upcoming interrupting
early enough both the mobile & correspondent nodes can be informed. As soon as,
the MAC layer detects connectivity again, it signals TCP that it can resume operation
at exactly the same point where it had been forced to stop.
Selective Retransmissions- (TCP SACK) : -A very useful extension of TCP is the
use of selective retransmission. TCP ACKs are cumulative i.e. they acknowledge inorder receipt of packets up to a certain packet. If a single packet is lost, the sender
has to retransmit everything starting from the lost packet ( go-back-n retransmission).
This obviously waste bandwidth . using RFC 2018, TCP can indirectly requests a
selective re-transmission of packets. The receiver can acknowledge single packets,
not only trains of in-sequence packets. The sender can now determine precisely which
packet is needed & can retransmit.
Adv. Sender retransmits only the lost packet
Transaction oriented TCP (T/TCP) :- Using TCP requires several packets over the
wireless link. First, TCP uses a 3-way handshake to establish the connection atleast
one additional packet is usually needed for transmission, of the request & requires
three more packets to close the connection via a three-way handshake. To reduce this
overhead, led to the development of a T/TCP. T/TCP can combine packets for
connection establishments & connection release with user data packets. This can
reduce the no. of packets down to two instead of seven.
Adv.: reduction in overhead which standard TCP has for connection setup &
connected release.
97
Configuration Parameter /
Factors to adapt TCP to
wireless
environment
1.
Large Windows
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Limited Transmit
Large MTU (Maximum Transfer Unit)
Selective Acknowledgement
Explicit Congestion Notification
Timestamp
98
Datacasting or Data
Broadcasting
Datacasting (data broadcasting) is the broadcasting of data
99
Datacasting or Data
Broadcasting
The need for Data Broadcast:
100
Data Broadcasting
MOBILE IP ( Problem
situation)
The address of a host consists of two parts (1) the higher order bits of the address
determine the n/w on which the host resides (2) the remaining low order bits
determine the host number. IP decides the next-hop by determining the network
information from the destination IP address of the packet. On the other hand, higher
level layers like TCP maintain information about connections that are indexed by a
quadruplet containing the IP addresses of both the endpoints and the port numbers.
Thus, while trying to support mobility on the Internet under the existing protocol
suite, we are faced with two mutually conflicting requirements:
A mobile node has to change its IP address whenever it changes its point of
attachment, so that packets destined to the node are routed correctly.
102
Motivation
103
Motivation
Changing the IP-address?: One simple solution is to let the mobile host
104
MOBILE IP :Introduction
105
106
Mobile
IP:
Terminology
Home Network: It is the subnet the MN belongs to with respect to its IP address. No
107
108
receiver
3
FA
CN
sender
MN
foreign
network
109
Source: Schiller
home network
MN
sender
Internet
FA
foreign
network
CN
receiver
110
Source: Schiller
Agent Discovery
Advertisement
Agent Solicitation
MN Registration
IN-Service (Packet Tunneling)
Deregistration
111
A.
1.
2.
3.
B.
1.
2.
112
Agent advertisement
7 8
15 16
23 24
type
code
checksum
#addresses addr. size
lifetime
router address 1
preference level 1
router address 2
preference level 2
...
31
type
length
sequence number
registration lifetime R B H F M G V reserved
COA 1
COA 2
...
113
Type: set to 9- if the agent also routes traffic from non-mobiles, set to 16- if it does not route
anything other than mobile traffic.
Length: 8 bit Define the total length of the extension message.
Sequence Number: Define the Total no. of advertisement sent since initialization .
Life Time : 16 bit Maximum lifetime in seconds that the agent will accept the request or node an
request during registration.
Care of Address: A list of address available for uses as Care of Address (COA): This field will be
used by foreign agent.
T - Reverse Tunneling
114
4.
5.
6.
Registration Process in
Mobile IP
Foreign Network
Foreign Agent
1. Registration
Request
Mobile Node
Visitor List
4. Registration
Reply
2. Registration
Request
3. Registration
Reply
Home Agent
Mobility Binding
Table
116
2.
3.
4.
5.
117
7.
D.
118
MN
Payload
(CN)
Header
Original IP Packet
Header
Home Agent (HA)
Payload
HA COA
Original IP Packet
Encapsulated IP Packet
TUNNEL
Foreign Agent (FA)
Src
Mobile
Node
(MN)
Dest
CN MN
Header
Payload
Original IP Packet
( decapsulated )
119
Encapsulation
original IP header
new IP header
outer header
original data
new data
inner header
original data
120
Triangle Routing
Correspondent Node
Home Agent
Foreign Agent
Mobile Node
121
Reverse Tunneling
firewalls permit only topological correct
addresses
Optimizations
122
MN
home network
Internet
sender
1
FA
CN
receiver
foreign
network
1. MN sends to FA
2. FA tunnels packets to HA
by encapsulation
3. HA forwards the packet to the
receiver (standard case)
123
124
Optimization of
forwarding
Triangular Routing
125
Security
authentication with FA problematic, for the FA
typically belongs to another organization
no
protocol for key management and key
distribution has been standardized in the Internet
patent and export restrictions
Firewalls
typically mobile IP cannot be used together with
firewalls, special set-ups are needed (such as
reverse tunneling)
QoS
many new reservations in case of RSVP
tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a
special treatment needed for the QoS
126
127
IPv6 Vs IPv4
IPv6 is 128 bits, can support up to 2128 IPv4 is 32 bits IP address
addresses to fulfill future needs with better and can support up to 232
security and network related features
addresses
IPv6 can handle different speed of networks, IPv4 is not so scalable.
from Extra Low Frequency networks to very high
speed of 500Gbits/s.
IPv6 provide a security layer that places IPv4 does not provide
"options" in separate extension headers
IPv6 has an anycast address that allows nodes IPv4 does not provide
to control the path which their traffic flows
IPv6 connects to global internet using a while
IPv4
manually
combination of it's global prefixes,
renumbers to connect to
the
internet.
IPv6
renumbers automatically
128
Motivation
Wireless Application Protocol
HTTP/HTML have not been designed for mobile devices and applications.
Because of fundamental limitations of power and form-factor, mass-market handheld devices tend
to have:
Less powerful CPUs, Less memory (ROM and RAM), Restricted power consumption,
Smaller displays, Different input devices (eg, a phone keypad).
Similarly, wireless data networks present a more constrained communication environment
compared to wired networks.
Because of fundamental limitations of power, available spectrum, and mobility, wireless data
networks tend to have:
Less bandwidth, More latency, Less connection stability, Less predictable availability.
Mobile networks are growing in complexity and the cost of all aspects for provisioning of more
value added services is increasing.
In order to meet the requirements of mobile network operators, solutions must be:
Scaleable mobile network operators are able to scale services to customer needs;
Efficient provides quality of service suited to the behaviour and characteristics of the mobile
network;
Reliable provides a consistent and predictable platform for deploying services; and
Secure enables services to be extended over potentially unprotected mobile networks while
still preserving the integrity of user data; protects the devices and services from security
problems such as loss of confidentiality.
129
Motivation
Wireless Application Protocol
integrity of user data; protects the devices and services from security problems such as
loss of confidentiality.
HTTP causes many problems already in fixed networks, but even more in wireless
networks.
1. Bandwidth and delay
2. Caching
3. POSTing
The problems with HTTP/HTML are well known and have encouraged many different
proprietary and standardized solutions such as
Utilizes plain Web HTTP 1.1 servers & utilizes standard Internet markup
language technology (XML)
130
WAP
The point of this standard was to show internet contents on wireless
clients, like mobile phones. The WAP protocol is the leading standard
for information services on wireless terminals like digital mobile
phones.
WAP uses the mark-up language WML (not HTML). WML is defined
as an XML 1.0 application
131
WAP
132
WAP
WAP Micro Browsers: To fit into a small wireless terminal, WAP uses a Micro
Browser. A Micro Browser is a small piece of software that makes minimal
demands on hardware, memory and CPU. It can display information written in a
restricted mark-up language called WML. The Micro Browser can also interpret a
reduced version of JavaScript called WMLScript.
What is WMLScript :WML uses WMLScript to run simple code on the client.
WMLScript is a light JavaScript language. However, WML scripts are not
embedded in the WML pages. WML pages only contains references to script
URLs. WML scripts need to be compiled into byte code on a server before they
can run in a WAP browser.
133
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>NNN Interactive</TITLE>
<META HTTP-EQUIV="Refresh" CONTENT="1800,
URL=/index.html">
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF"
BACKGROUND="/images/9607/bgbar5.gif"
LINK="#0A3990" ALINK="#FF0000" VLINK="#FF0000"
TEXT="000000" ONLOAD="if(parent.frames.length!
=0)top.location='http://nnn.com';">
<A NAME="#top"></A>
<TABLE WIDTH=599 BORDER="0">
<TR ALIGN=LEFT>
<TD WIDTH=117 VALIGN=TOP ALIGN=LEFT>
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE
>NNN
Intera
ctive<
/TITLE
>
<META
HTTPEQUIV=
"Refre
sh"
CONTEN
T="180
0,
URL=/i
ndex.h
tml">
Wireless network
WAP
<WML>
<CARD>
<DO TYPE="ACCEPT">
<GO URL="/submit?Name=$N"/>
</DO>
Enter name:
<INPUT TYPE="TEXT" KEY="N"/>
</CARD>
</WML>
Content encoding
010011
010011
110110
010011
011011
011101
010010
011010
134
Browser
Micro browser, similar to existing web browsers
Markup/Script language
Gateway
Protocol layers
Server
Architectural Goals
The goals of the WAP Forum architecture
137
WAP Gateway
WML
WMLScript
WTAI
Etc.
Web Server
WML Encoder
WSP/WTP
WMLScript
Compiler
Protocol Adapters
HTTP
CGI
Scripts
etc.
Content
WML Decks
with WML-Script
Client
138
Client
WML
WMLScript
WTAI
WML Encoder
WSP/WTP
WMLScript
Compiler
Protocol Adapters
Application
Logic
Content
WML Decks
with WML-Script
Etc.
139
WAP specifies
WML Microbrowser
WMLScript Virtual Machine
WMLScript Standard Library
Wireless Telephony Application Interface (WTAI)
WAP content types
140
A-SAP
WAP
additional services
and applications
TR-SAP
Transaction Layer (WTP)
SEC-SAP
SSL/TLS
TCP/IP,
UDP/IP,
media
WCMP
WAE comprises WML (Wireless Markup Language), WML Script, WTAI etc.
141
Source: Schiller
WAP
Proxy/Server
Mobile
WAE
WAE
Apps on
other servers
WSP
WSP
SMSC
WTP
WDP
SMS
WTP
WDP
SMS
WDP Tunnel
Protocol
WDP Tunnel
Protocol
Subnetwork
Subnetwork
142
WAP
stack
WAE (Wireless Application Environment):
143
144
provides
privacy (encryption)
data integrity (MACs)
authentication (public-key and symmetric)
148
Wireless Application
Environment
Goals
To create a general-purpose application environment based mainly
on existing technologies of WWW.
To allow service providers, software manufacturers, or hardware
vendors to integrate their applications so they can reach a wide
variety of different wireless platforms in an efficient manner.
device and network independent application environment
for low-bandwidth, wireless devices
considerations of slow links, limited memory, low computing
power, small display, simple user interface (compared to
desktops), special security and access control features.
integrated Internet / WWW programming model
high interoperability
To minimize over-the-air traffic and resources consumption on the
handheld device.
149
WAE components
Architecture
User Agents
WML/WTA/Others
content formats: vCard, WML..
WML/Script
WTA
other content
server
Client
Gateway
response
with
content
Method proxy
encoded
response
with
content
Push proxy
push
content
request
encoders
&
decoders
encoded
push
content
encoded
request
WTA
user agent
WML
user agent
other
WAE
user agents
151
Push OTA
Protocol
Push Proxy
Gateway
Coding
Checking
Push Access
Protocol
Push Initiator
Server
Application
In a push context the server initiates the message transfer, not the client. The
server is called push initiator (PI) and transfer content via a push proxy gateway
(PPG) to a client.. The push access protocol (PAP) controls communication
between PI and PPG. The push over the air (OTA) protocol is used between PPG
and the client. If the PI is able to use the push OTA protocol, it can directly
communicate with the client too. Example usage scenarios for push messages are
news, road conditions, e-mail indication etc.
Push Proxy gateway: The PPG provides many functions to transform protocol
messages and content exchanged between server and client. The PPG accepts
push messages from a PI and checks if this message can be forwarded to the
client. Checking comprises mapping of a client addresses onto a format valid in the
mobile network. A PPG can also multicast messages to a group of receivers.
152
Push submission
Result notification:
Push Cancellation
Status Query:
Client Capabilities Query:
WAP Applications
Some of the interesting applications of WAP (already existing or being worked on)
are:
Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC) and Nokia are working with a Finnish
fashion retailer who plans to send clothing offers direct to mobile telephones
using a combination of cursors, touch screen technology and WAP to allow wouldbe shoppers to hot-link to order-entry pages on the web.
In Finland, children already play new versions of competitive games such as
"Battleships", via the cellular networks. In the music world, Virgin Mobile in the
UK offers to download the latest pop hits to customers in a daily offering.
Scala has developed several WAP products for small to medium-sized companies
which would allow, for example, a field sales force to access customer order
information and stock availability details via a WAP handset.
A key growth area for the technology will be business-to-workforce, with companies
using WAP applications to reach employees at any time. Scala is currently
working on time-sheet applications and techniques for entering and filing expense
claims via the mobile phone.
Nokia says applications that will benefit from WAP include customer care and
provisioning, message notification and call management, e-mail, mapping
and location services, weather and traffic alerts, sports and financial
services, address book and directory services and corporate intranet
applications.
154
WAP Applications
155
WAP Applications
Operator/country
France Telecom
Omnitel, Italy
Optus, Australia
Orange, UK
SmarTone, Hong
Kong
Sonera, Finland
Sprint, US
Telefonica Moviles,
Spain
156
One of the problem, basically to do with infrastructure (and not WAP) is that
as the mobile Internet access, thanks to WAP, increases it is likely to put ever
greater demands on existing technology infrastructures as it encourages
higher m-commerce volumes. A live example is I-mode services in Japan,
where the mobile data access has seen a unprecedented rate of growth. So,
unless the infrastructure is geared up to expect unexpected volumes, this can
have significant impact on these data services since most of these systems
are simply inadequate for big volumes. So there is a possibility of
unsatisfactory performances observed by mobile data users.
Another problem area is that the delay in the delivery of long-promised
terminals and service launches are narrowing the window of opportunity for
WAP, while the proposed developments in faster mobile networks and more
sophisticated terminals come closer. Further developments in WAP are still
required and in the meantime, other solutions will emerge.
Also as with many other technologies what matters most and what guides the
development of a technology is the emergence of killer applications. So,
unless some killer applications hit the market, which influence the mood of the
end user, WAP just like other technologies has a difficult path ahead. Already
due to lots of hype WAP proponents find them selves in a little tight position.
So, this presents a big opportunity for the developer community to develop
new and innovative applications that can realize the advantage of WAP. There
is going to be big appetite for WAP applications in the very near future
157
158