Chapter 3 Coordination And

Response

ITeach Biology Form 5

3.1 Response And

Coordination

Learning Outcomes:
List the changes in external and internal
environment faced by an organism
State why organisms have to be
sensitive to the changes in environment
Clarify through examples the meaning
of stimulus and response
State the components and pathways of
information due to external and internal
stimuli
State the meaning of coordination.

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Response And Coordination

All organisms can detect changes in the environment
and respond to changes in certain ways. Any change
in the environment that make organism react is a
stimulus.
There
are
two
types
of light, sound, smell,
stimulus:
taste,
temperature,
Changes occur in
External stimuli
pressure and touch.
external environment
Internal stimuli

Changes occur in
internal environment

Sugar
level,
body
temperature & osmotic
pressure of the blood.

A response is the way an organism reacts after

detecting
stimulus.
Sensitivitya is
the ability to respond appropriately to
stimuli are detected by receptors or sense organs
Stimuli
(eyes, ears, nose and skin)
Organs that respond to the stimuli are called
effectors (muscles and glands)
Coordination is the process by which stimuli are
detected and eventually results in appropriate
responses
Coordination is carried out by the nervous system
and endocrine system

Why the organisms have to be

sensitive to changes in
internal and external
environment?
To
provide
a
quick
response so can
protect from harm
To ensure the survival

Movement Of Plant Parts In

Response To External Stimuli
There are 3 types of responses in plants:
A) Tropism
Stimulus:
Type of response:
1. light
phototropism
2. water
hydrotropism
3. gravitational pull
geotropism
B) Nastic Movement
- parts of the plants in response to stimuli
e.g. Mimosa pudica (leaf response to touch)
C) Tactic movement
- whole parts of the plant in response to stimuli
e.g. long bean plant (whole plant response to
touch)

Table 1: Receptors Involved In Detecting External

Stimuli
Stimulus

Type of receptor

Location of receptor

Light

Photoreceptor

Retina of the eyes

Sound

Mechanoreceptor

Ears

Chemical

Chemoreceptor

Nose and tongue

Touch

Mechanoreceptor

Skin

Pressure

Mechanoreceptor

Skin and ears

Pain

Pain receptor

Skin

Gravity

Mechanoreceptor

Ears

Air
Temperature

Thermoreceptor

Skin

Table 2 : Receptors involved in

detecting internal stimuli.
Stimulus

Type of receptor

Location of receptor

Body temperature

Thermoreceptor

Hypothalamus
(in brain)

Blood osmotic pressure

Osmoreceptor

Hypothalamus
(in brain)

Blood pH

Chemoreceptor

Medulla oblongata,
aortic and carotid artery

Blood sugar level

Chemoreceptor

Blood pressure

Baroreceptor

Pancreas
Aortic and carotid
artery

onents and Pathways Of Information Due To External S

Sends
nerve
Integrating centreimpulses
(Brain)

Afferent
neurone
carries nerve
impulses to
Triggers
nerve
impulses

Receptor in the ear

(mechanoreceptor)

Afferen
t
pathwa
y

detected
by
External Stimulus
(Sound of car horn)

Efferen
t
pathwa
y

Efferent
neurone
carries
nerve
impulses to

Effector
(Muscles in leg)
reacts to
cause

Response
(Move away
from the
incoming car)

onents and Pathways Of Information Due To Internal S

Afferent
neurone
carries
nerve
Triggers
impulses to
nerve

Sends
nerve
Integrating centre impulses

(Brain)

impulses

Afferen
t
Receptors in the skin
pathwa
(heat receptor)
y

detected
by
Internal Stimulus
(High body temperature)

Efferen
t
pathwa
y

Efferent
neurone
carries
nerve
impulses to

Effectors
(Skin and
endocrine
glands)

reacts to
cause

Response
(Increase heat
loss)

Chapter 3 Coordination And

Response

3.2 Role Of Human Nervous

System

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

3 Main Role Of Human Nervous System

Receives information from receptors

Sensor
y

Transmits information
Interprets information
Formulates appropriate responses
to effectors
Controls and coordinates functions
throughout
body
and
helps
maintain homeostasis

Integrat
ion

Moto
r

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

ole Of Human Nervous System

Central Nervous System
(CNS)
Organisation
Of Human
Consists of brain and
Nervous
spinal cord
It is the control centre of
System (pg.
the body
78)
Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
All the nerves
that
branch
out from the
CNS
and
connect it to
the
rest
of
system
is made up
body

The nervous
nerve cells called

Consists
of

e.g.
Cranial
nerve
Spinal
nerves
of millions of

Carries
impulses to
CNS
Carries
impulses
away from
CNS

Components of CNS:
1) The Structure Of Human Brain
The brain is composed of
three main parts:
~ cerebrum
~ cerebellum
~ brain stem
(pons & medulla
oblongata)
There are other
components such as:
~ thalamus
~ hypothalamus
* pituitary glands
(not component of nervous
system)
Refer textbook page 79,
Figure 3.5
16

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

The Structure Of Human Brain

Cerebrum
Hypothalamus

Thalamus

Cerebellum
Pituitary gland

Medulla oblongata

a) Cerebrum
The cerebrum, the largest part and most
complex of the human brain, is divided into
left and right hemispheres.
The hemispheres are covered by a thin layer of
grey matter known as the cerebral cortex.
Each hemisphere has folds and grooves to
increase the surface area of the
cerebrum. (to store more neurons)
The left hemisphere controls all activities on the
right side of the body.
The right side controls all activities on the left
side of body.
The right hemisphere of the cerebrum is
associated with creativity and artistic
ability.
18
The left hemisphere is associated with

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Cerebrum
Motor area

Ta
m ct
us ile
cl &
e
se
ns

leg
al
t
en
arm
m
er ies
h
ig it
Eyes
H tiv
Head
ac
speechFace hearing

front

back

vision

Taste and smell

Main function areas of the cerebral cortex

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

The Functions Of Cerebrum

Interprets and intergrates
information from receptors.

Controls the voluntary

actions of the body.
Site of intelligence and
carries out complex mental
processes

Tasting

Movement

Hearing

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

B) Cerebellum And The Functions

A second largest region and
complex lobe on the posterior
side of the cerebrum. (hind brain)
Has two hemispheres and each
hemisphere
has
folds
and
grooves.
Functions:
1. Control and coordinates the
contraction of muscles
for body movement
2. Control body balancing

Body balance

Brain Stem And The Functions

The brainstem
~ connects the brain and spinal
cord and
~ lies below the cerebellum.
It includes two regions called the
pons and the medulla oblongata.
The medulla oblongata is the
closest to the spinal cord.
Functions of medulla oblongata:
1) controls involuntary actions
such as
heartbeat, breathing,
vasoconstriction
2) reflex centers for vomiting,
coughing,
sneezing, swallowing, and
hiccupping.

22

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

D) Thalamus And The Function

Located between brain

stem and the cerebrum.
Functions:
1. Integrates
the
information
from
the
sensory receptors to the
cerebrum
2. Involved in the feelings
of pleasure and pain.

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

E) Hypothalamus And The Function

Located below thalamus.
Functions:
1)
Control
centre
for
recognition and analysis of
hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger,
blood
pressure,
water
balance
and
body
temperature.
2) maintain homeostasis
3) Controls the release of
several hormones from the
pituitary gland Controls the
coordination of the nervous
and endocrine system

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

f) The Functions Of Pituitary Gland

An endocrine gland found
in the hypothalamus of the
brain.
Functions:
1) Secretes hormones that
influence other glands
2) Controls body functions
such
as
growth,
osmoregulation
and
reproduction

2) Spinal Cord: Structure and Function

The spinal cord is surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions the cord and
it with gases and nutrients.
provides
It has white matter on the outside which
consists of myelinated axon of neurones.
On the inside is the grey matter which is Hshaped or butterfly-shaped and consists of
cell bodies of neurones.
31 spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord
Each spinal nerve has 2 roots, a dorsal root
and a ventral root.
The dorsal root contains the axons of afferent
neurones, whie the dorsal root ganglion
contains the cell bodies of afferent neurons.
The ventral root contains the axons of efferent
neurones.
Cross-section of the
spinal cord

Spinal cord and

vertebral column

Dorsal root
(sensory
neurons)
Contain axon
of afferent
neurone

Dorsal root
ganglion
Contain cell
bodies of
afferent
neurone
31 spinal nerve
emerged from spinal
cord

Consists cell bodies of

neurones

Consists
myelinated
axons of
neurones

Consists axons of efferent

neurones

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

The Structure And Function Of A Typical

Neurone

Cell body

Contains a nucleus,
cytoplasm and other
Serves as a control
organelles
centre
Neurilemma
Forms the cell
membrane of a
neurone
Myelin sheath
Insulates the axon
and speeds up the
transmission of
impulses

Dendrites
Carry the impulses
towards the cell body
Nucleu
s

Dendron (Transmits
impulse
Axon
towards
the cell impulse
body)
(Transmits
away
from the cell body)
Nodes of Ranvier
Where the neurilemma
constricts,
helps
to
speed up transmission of
nerve impulse
Muscle fibres

Dorsal root
(sensory
neurons)
Contain axon
of afferent
neurone

Dorsal root
ganglion
Contain cell
bodies of
afferent
neurone
31 spinal nerve
emerged from spinal
cord

Consists cell bodies of

neurones

Consists
myelinated
axons of
neurones

Consists axons of efferent

neurones

Main Functions Of Spinal

Cord
To process certain types of sensory
information and sends out
responses via the
efferent neurons.
Contains neurons that convey
signals to and
from the brain.
Control reflex action

33

Neurones : Structure and Function

The neurone is the functional
unit of the nervous system.
Humans have about 100 billion
neurones in their brain alone.
While variable in size and shape,
all neurons have three parts.
A. Dendrites receive
information
from another cell and
transmit the impulse to
the cell body.
B. Cell body contains the
nucleus, mitochondria and
other organelles
C. Axon conducts impulse
away from the cell body.
34

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

The Structure And Function Of A Typical

Neurone
Cell body

Contains a nucleus,
cytoplasm and other
Serves
as a control
organelles
centre

Neurilemma

Forms the cell

membrane of a
neurone

Myelin sheath

Insulates the axon

and speeds up the
transmission of
impulses

Dendrites
Carry the impulses
towards the cell body

Nucle
us
Dendron
transmits impulse towards
the cell body)

Axon
Transmits impulse away
from the cell body)

Nodes of Ranvier
Where the neurilemma
constricts,
helps
to
speed up transmission of
nerve impulse

Muscle
fibres

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Types Of Neurones And Their functions

There
are 3
types
of
neuron
es
Afferent
neurone

Efferent
neurone
Interneurone

Interneurone

Carries nerves impulses from afferent neurone to an

efferent neurone

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Role Of Human Nervous System

Pathway Of Transmission Of
Information
From Receptors To Effectors
A neurone transmits information is the form of
electrical signals called nerve impulses
Only a strong stimulus (if it exceeds the
threshold level) can generate an impulse which
transmit information from one part of a neurone
to another neurone
Schematic Diagram Of The
Pathway Of Transmission Of
Information

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Synapse
A synapse is the site where one neurone
connects to another neurone
Synapse occur between the synaptic knobs of
the terminals of the axon of the presynaptic
neurone and a dendrite of a postsynaptic
neurone
The
tiny gap between the two neurones is
known as the synaptic cleft
When an impulse reaches a synapse, the small
synaptic vesicles clustered at the tip of the
axon release chemical substances called
neurotransmitters
To cross the synaptic cleft requires the actions
of neurotransmitters.
Examples
of
neurotransmitters
are
acetylcholine, dopamine, noradrenalin and
serotonin.

Synaptic
knob of
terminal
axon of
presynapti
c neurones
Dendrite
of
postsynapt
ic

/ synapse

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Synapse
The neurotransmitter diffuses across the
synaptic cleft to generate fresh impulses
in the adjoining neurone
After performing their function, the
neurotransmitter is quickly broken down
by enzymes and rendered inactive
Because of this, nerve impulses are made
to travel in one direction only.
Neurotransmitters tend to be small
molecules, some are even hormones.
The time for neurotransmitter action is
between 0.5 and 1 millisecond.

Synaptic
knob of
terminal
axon of
presynapti
c neurones
Dendrite
of
postsynapt
ic

/ synapse

Transmission of information across a

synapse
The junction between
a nerve cell and
another cell is called
a synapse.
Messages travel
within the neuron as
an electrical action
potential.
The space between
two cells is known as
the synaptic cleft.
To cross the synaptic
cleft requires the
actions of
neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters
are stored in small

51

Cont
Arrival of the action potential causes some of the
vesicles to move to the end of the axon and
discharge their contents into the synaptic cleft.
Released neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft,
and bind to receptors on the other cell's membrane,
causing ion channels on that cell to open.
Neurotransmitters tend to be small molecules, some
are even hormones. The time for neurotransmitter
action is between 0.5 and 1 millisecond.
The neurotransmitters cross the cleft, binding to
receptor molecules on the next cell, prompting
transmission of the message along that cell's
membrane.
Acetylcholine and noradrenaline are the examples of
a neurotransmitter.
52

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Role Of Human Nervous System

Types Of Coordinated Response

Two types of actions controlled by the
human nervous system

Control by cerebrum
Voluntary Action
(under the control of the will of individu

Involuntary ActionControl by medulla oblongata

(not control by the will of individual)
It occurs automatically in the
body without any conscious
control.
ITeach Biology Form 5

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Voluntary Action
Initiated by the motor centres of the
cerebral cortex
The pathway of transmission of information
in voluntary action

Stimulus

Response

ITeach Biology Form 5

Afferent nerve
Receptors

Effector

Efferent nerve

Sensory
areas of
the
cerebral
cortex
Motor area
of the
cerebral
cortex

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Involuntary Action

The brain is not conscious of an involuntary action

Example of involuntary action involving
skeletal muscle
knee jerk reflex
withdrawal of the hand from a
hot object
Example of involuntary action involving
smooth muscle
Contraction of cardiac muscle
or glands
blood glucose level
regulation of blood pressure
rate of breathing
ITeach Biology Form 5

Chapter 3 Coordination And Respons

Reflex Action
A quick automatic response to an external
stimulus
Happen very rapidly
Without conscious control
Involves contraction of skeletal muscles and
spinal cord only.
The nerve pathway involved in a reflex action is
called a reflex arc
The knee jerk reflex is a two-neurone reflex arc
(no interneurone)
The withdrawal of hand from hot object reflex is
a three-neurone reflex arc
ITeach Biology Form 5

KNEE JERK REFLEX

When the part below the knee cap

(patela) is
struck by a reflex hammer,
the sensory receptor in the muscle is
strecthed.

This stimulates the afferent neurone

to send out a
nerve impulse
The nerve impulse travels to the axon
terminal in the spinal cord.
Neurotransmitters are released and
diffused across synapse.
It triggers the efferent neurone to send
out a new nerve impulse to the effector
(muscle cells).
At the axon terminal of the efferent
neurone, neurotransmitters are released
that stimulate the
muscles cells to
contract.

 A finger touches a hot iron, causing the

sensory receptors in the skin to generate
nerve impulses.
The nerve impulses are transmitted along an
afferent neurone toward the spinal cord.
In the spinal cord, the nerve impulses are
transmitted from the afferent neurone to an
interneurone.
From the interneurone, the nerve impulses
are transmitted to an efferent neurone.
The efferent neurone carries the nerve
impulses from the spinal cord to the effector
(muscle tissue).
So that the finger will be pulled away
immediately without having to think about it.

The Importance Of Reflex

Actions
Provide an immediate withdrawal
from harmful and dangerous stimuli.
Coordinate rapid automatic
responses to stimuli without
conscious control from the brain. Eg:
when a person accidentally touches a
very hot object.

Disease Related To The Nervous System

A. Parkinson Disease (Parkinsonism)

Parkinson's disease is a
degenerative disorder of
the CNS that often
impairs the sufferer's
motor skills and speech.
It is due to the reduced
level of
neurotransmitters called
dopamine in the brain.
It is characterized by
tremor, a slowing of

64

Disease Related To The Nervous System

A. Parkinson Disease (Parkinsonism)

In some cases, the

disease is caused by the
hardening of the cerebral
arteries.
The muscle cannot
function smoothly and
become stiff and jerky in
their actions.
The disease affect the
elderly and it is not a
hereditary disease.
65

B. Alzheimers Disease
Alzheimers disease is neurological disease
characterized by increasing loss of memory and
intellectual ability.
The diease is associated with the shrinkage of
brain tissues and lack of neurotransmitter such
as acetylcholine.
Signs of Alzheimer's: memory loss,
disorientation to time and place, problems with
abstract thinking, misplacing things, changes in
mood or behavior.
Risk factors :
i. Age
Most individuals with the disease are 65 or
older.
ii. Family history
66
Another risk factor is family history.

c. Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a brain disorder that causes
people to have recurring seizures. The
seizures happen when clusters of nerve
cells, or neurons, in the brain send out the
wrong signals.
Epilepsy has many possible causes,
including illness, brain injury and abnormal
brain development.
Doctors use brain scans and other tests to
diagnose epilepsy. It is important to start
treatment right away. There is no cure for
epilepsy, but medicines can control seizures
for most people. When medicines are not
working well, surgery or implanted
67 devices

d. Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis is a
CNS disorder marked by
decreased nerve function
with initial inflammation
of the protective myelin
nerve covering and
eventual scarring.
The symptoms of MS can
be different from person
to person. Visual,
sensory, and motor signs
and symptoms are all
part of MS.
68

e.Poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis (polio) is a
highly infectious disease
caused by a virus.
It invades the nervous
system, and can cause
total paralysis in a matter
of hours.
The virus enters the body
through the mouth and
multiplies in the intestine.
Initial symptoms are fever,
fatigue, headache,
vomiting, stiffness in the
neck and pain in the
limbs.
Polio mainly affects
children under five years
of age.
There is no cure for polio,

69

Chapter 3 Coordination
And Response
3.3 Role Of Hormones
In Humans

The Human Endocrine System

Endocrine system is made up of endocrine glands

Endocrine Glands And Its Function

Have no ducts or openings
Secretes chemicals called hormones, which diffuse
directly into the blood stream and circulated all over the
body.
Although the hormones travel in the blood of the body,
they affect and influence only specific target cells. The
hormones are involved in specific physiological process.
Endocrine system produce more general and slower
effects compare to the nervous system.
It also controls long-term changes like rate of growth,
rate of activity, sexual development and reproduction.

What Is Endocrine And Exocrine

Glands?
Endocrine glands are glands without duct
and openings.
E.g. pituitary gland, ovaries
The secretions (hormones) diffuse directly
into blood
Exocrine glands are glands with duct or
openings
E.g. salivary gland
The secretions diffuse through the duct or
openings

Endocrine Glands And Its Function

Endocrine system works with the nervous system
to help the body respond to stress.
Example - release of adrenaline in the fight or flight
response.
Maintains homeostasis.
Example - The control of blood sugar level, blood
pH and blood osmotic pressure.

Function Of Hormones
A) in reproduction
~ Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
~ Luteinising Hormone (LH)
~ Oestrogen
~ Progesterone
~ Testosterone
B) in growth
~ Growth hormone (GH)
~ Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
~ Thyroxine
C) in homeostasis
~ insulin
~ glucagon
~ antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
~ aldosterone
~ adrenaline

Groups Of Hormone
Can be classified into two groups:
a) Steroid hormone:
~ produced from a lipid called
cholesterol
b) Non-steroid hormone:
~ are made up of proteins, small
peptides and modified amino acids

* Control the
pituitary
gland

* Produces hormones
to regulate activities of
other endocrine gland

2
3
4
5

Anterior pituitary gland

Endocrine
gland

Hormones

Function

Thyroid Stimulating Stimulates thyroid to release thyroxin from

the thyroid gland.
Hormone (TSH)

Anterior
pituitary gland

Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH)

Females - stimulates growth of follicles in

ovaries,
Males - stimulates spermatogenesis.

Luteinising
Hormone (LH)

Females - stimulates ovulation, growth of

corpus luteum and secretion of oestrogen and
progesterone.
Males - Stimulates secretion of testosterone.

Adrenocorticotrophic
Hormone (ACTH)

Stimulates
hormones.

adrenal

cortex

to

release

Growth hormone

Stimulates growth, protein synthesis and fat

metabolism.

Prolactin

Stimulates milk production and secretion

from mammary glands

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Endocrine
gland

Hormones

Function

Stimulates water reabsorption by

Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) kidneys

Posterior
pituitary
gland
Oxytocin

Females - stimulates contraction of

uterine muscles during childbirth and
milk flow.
Males - causes sperm ejection.

Summary Of Pituitary Glands

Function

Role Of Hormones In Humans

Thyroid gland
Endocrin
e gland

Hormones

Function

- Increases metabolic rate

Thyroid

Thyroxin

Increases body
temperature

- Regulates growth and

development

Role Of Hormones In Humans

Adrenal Gland
Endocrine
gland

Hormones

Adrenal

cortex
medulla

Function

Aldosterone

Increases reabsorption of
salt in kidneys

Adrenaline and
noradrenalin

Increases sugar level in

blood,

Adrenal Gland

Increases metabolic rate,

Increases heart beat

Kidney

Role Of Hormones In Humans

Pancreas
Endocrine
gland

Pancreas

Function

Hormones
Insulin
(secreted by beta cells of
islet of Langerhans)

- Decreases blood glucose levels

- Promotes conversion of glucose
to glycogen

Glucagon
- Increases blood glucose level
(secreted by alpha cells of Converts glycogen to glucose
islet of Langerhans)

pancreas

A Look At History
Islet of Langerhans
~ Paul Langerhans, German anatomist
discovered clusters of cells in the
pancreas.
~ He called them Islet of Langerhans.
~ Each islet includes beta cells which
secrete
insulin and alpha cells which secrete
glucagon.

Role Of Hormones In Humans

Ovaries
Endocrine
gland

Hormones

Function

Oestrogen

Stimulates
development
of
female
secondary sexual characteristics,
repair of the uterine lining,
stimulates the development of eggs and
female reproductive organ

Ovaries

Progesterone

Stimulates development of uterine lining,

formation of the placenta.

Role Of Hormones In Humans

Testis
Endocrine
gland
Testis

Hormones

Testosterone

Function
Stimulates
development
of
secondary sexual characteristics
Stimulates
sperm
production
development of testes

male
and

Bio Insight
Endocrine glands are amazingly small
The pituitary gland is only as large as a pea.
All the bodys endocrine tissues would fit into
the palm of ones hand.
The quantity of hormone produced is also
slight.
Eg:
~ the average woman produces only about 5 ml
of
estrogen in her entire lifetime.
Hormones are very powerful and are effective
at concentration as low as one part per million.

Secretion Of Hormones
Various (3) ways hormones are produced:
1) secretion of hormones regulated by
another hormone
2) secretion of hormones regulated by
levels
of certain substances
3) secretion of hormones regulated by
nervous system

1) Secretion Of Hormones
Regulated
By
Another
Hormone
Example:
~ The release of the hormone thyroxine is regulated by the
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
~ A high level of thyroxine:
1) inhibits the release of the thyroid-stimulating hormone
from pituitary gland
2) so, stops the release of additional thyroxine from thyroid
gland.
~ A low level of thyroxine:
1) stimulates the secretion of the thyroid-stimulating
hormone
2) then, stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine.

 Refer To Textbook Page 93,

Diagram 3.16

2) Secretion Of Hormones Regulated

By Levels Of Certain Substances
Example of substance: Glucose
~ Level of glucose can control the secretion of
hormones.
~ A HIGH level of glucose:
1) stimulates pancreas to secrete insulin
2) excess glucose converted to glycogen
3) This decreases the level of glucose in blood
~ Too LOW level of glucose:
1) it triggers the secretion of glucagon
2) Glucagon converts glycogen to glucose
3) This increases the level of glucose in the blood.

3) Secretion Of Hormones Regulated

By Nervous System
Some endocrine glands are controlled by the
nerve system. e.g. adrenal gland
The HYPOTHALAMUS receives nerve impulses
from the receptors
Receptors stimulates the PITUITARY GLAND to
release hormones.
The ADRENAL GLAND is also stimulated to
release hormones by the nervous system.

Coordination Involving Both

The Nervous System And
Endocrine System In A Fight
Or Flight Situation
In a situation where you are excited or
frightened, nerve impulses stimulate the
adrenal glands to secrete hormones.
Both the nervous system and
endocrine system are involved in
producing a fight or flight response.

Coordination Involving Both The Nervous System And

Endocrine System In A Fight Or Flight Situation

Eg: Stimulus :A sudden storm or when you take a

test.
~ Nerve impulses from the receptors travel to the brainNervous
system
~ The information is interpreted
~ The brain sends nerve impulses to the adrenal glands.
~ Response : The gland are stimulated to release
adrenaline.
~ The hormone increases the heartbeat rate and blood
pressure.
~ more blood flow to muscles.
Endocrin
~ It also makes a person breathe faster and deeper
e
system
~ Glucose level increases
~ This effect is an increase in energy to help to fight the
stressful situation or run away (flight) from the situation.

Summary Of Effects Of Hormonal

Imbalance
Hormone

The effect of
deficiency of the
hormone

Growth
hormone
(GH)
Thyroxin

Dwarfism (in children)

Goitre enlargement of
thyroid gland
Cretinism (in children)
Hypothyroidism
(in
adult)
Insulin
Diabetes
mellitus
(diabetes)
Antidiureti Diabetes inspidus
c hormone - Large volume of urine is
(ADH)
excreted and body loses
a lot of water

The effect of
excess of the
hormone

Gigantism
children)

(in

Hyperthyroidism
(in adult)

Hypoglycaemia (Low
blood sugar level)
Oedema
accumulation
of
excess fluids in the
body

Effects Of Hormonal Imbalance

Goitre

~ the enlargement of thyroid gland due to iodine deficiency

Cretinism

~ mental retardation and dwarfism due to thyroxine

deficiency in children

Hypothyroidism

~ enlarge of thyroid gland, slow heart rate, fatigue and weight

gain. Due to lack of thyroxine in adults

Hyperthyroidism

~ enlarge of thyroid gland, nervousness, rapid heart beat,

bulging eyes, hand tremor and weight loss due to excess
thyroxine in adults.

Gigantism
Dwarfism
Diabetes inspidus
Oedema
Diabetes mellitus

~ body grow too quickly in child due to excess growth

hormone.
~ the growth of body too slow due to lack of growth hormone.
~a large volume of urine is excreted, body loses a lot of water
due to lack of ADH.
~ accumulation of excess fluids in the body due to excess ADH.
~ the level of glucose in blood rise so high due to lack of
insulin.

Uses of Hormones in Medicines

Hormones
GH
GH and
Thyroxine
Insulin
Oestrogen

Oestrogen
and
Progesterone
Progesterone

Uses
Treat dwarfism
Treat cretinism
Treat diabetes mellitus
treat the problem of secondary
sexual development,
menstruation or menopause
and prevent osteoporosis
used in the conctraceptive pill
to alter the hormonal balance in
the menstrual cycle and
prevent ovulation
used to strengthen and thicken
the wall of the uterus to

Extra info
Cretinism
~ can be prevented by the addition of a small amount of
iodine in
table salt or food.
Diabetes mellitus
~ two types of diabetes mellitus
Type I ~ diabetes is due to LITTLE or NO secretion of
insulin.
~ usually occurs before the age of 15
~ requires insulin injections to keep the normal
blood glucose
level
Type II ~ diabetes is due to the cells not being able to
properly
respond to the hormone
~ develops after the age of 40

Chapter 3 Coordination And

Response

3.4 Homeostasis In
Humans

Homeostasis
The regulation / maintenance of physical and chemical
factors in the internal environment at constant level for
the body cells to function optimally.
Physical
factors
Chemical
factors

- Body temperature
- Blood pressure
- Partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Osmotic pressure

- Sugar levels

Importance of homeostasis:
To ensure physiological processes proceed at optimum
rates to promote harmonious growth and development
To ensure survival of organisms

Introduction of Concept of
Homeostasis in Humans
The term was coined in 1932 by
Walter Bradford Cannon from the Greek homoios
(same, like, resembling) and stasis (to stand, posture).
Homeostasis is the maintenance of the internal
conditions within tolerable limits, which is one of the
fundamental characteristics of living things.
* The excretory system plays an important role in
homeostasis. The primary organs are the kidneys.

103

The Kidneys Have Four Functions:

Regulation of blood water levels

Reabsorption of useful substances into
the blood
Adjustment of the levels of salts and
ions in the blood (Osmoregulation)
Excretion of urea and other metabolic
wastes

104

The Human Urinary System

Made up of two kidneys which lie at the back the
abdominal cavity
Each kidney is bean-shaped about 12cm long and 7cm
wide
The urine formation occurs
in the kidneys.
The kidneys are essentially
blood filters.
Blood is brought to the
kidneys from the heart to be
filtered by renal artery.
After filtering, the blood is
taken away again by the
renal vein to the heart. (pg
98)

Right kidney

Left kidney

Position Of Kidney In The Human Body

Blood out
to the
heart

Blood in
from heart

Right
renal vein

Left renal
artery

106

The Structure Of Kidney

Posterior vena cava

Dorsal aorta

Renal vein

Left renal artery

Carries blood that has

been filtered by the
kidney to the heart

Cortex
Medulla
Right
kidney

Carries
oxygenated
blood
together with nitrogenous waste
products from the heart to the
kidney

Ureter

Transfers urine from the

kidney to the bladder
Bladder

Stores urine

Urethra

Removes urine from the

body

The Mammalian Kidney

Renal vein

Each kidney
about
one
nephrons

Renal artery

contains
million

One nephron
pelvis
cortex
medulla
ureter

Longitudinal section of the kidney

The nephron is the

functional unit of the
kidney, performing the
functions of excretion
and osmoregulation

Human Kidney
The figure shows a
longitudinal section of a
kidney.
A longitudinal section
through a kidney shows
three distinct areas:
A. an outer region called
the cortex
B. a middle region called
the medulla
C. an inner region open
into the ureter,
called the pelvis.

The Structure Of A Nephron

(Single Nephron With Its Blood Supply)

proximal
convoluted tubule
Bowmans capsule

distal convoluted
tubule

branch of renal artery

Blood capillaries
collecting duct

At one end of the

nephron
Renal
artery

Bowmans
capsule

Pelvis

loop of Henle

Proximal convoluted
tubule

Collecting duct

U-shaped
loop of Henle
Distal convoluted
tubule

The Formation Of Urine

*The kidney serve two functions:
A. Excretion
B. Osmoregulation
A. Excretion (producing urine)
Nitrogenous wastes such as urea and other unwanted
substances are excreted from the body by the kidneys
through urine. The formation of urine involves three
stages.
i. Ultrafiltration
ii. Reabsorption
iii. Secretion
111

The Formation Of Urine

Occurs through 3 main processes
Ultrafiltration

Reabsorption

Secretion

tubule

Efferent arteriole

Bowmans capsule
glomerulus

Blood

Afferent arteriole

A Bowmans capsule and glomerulus showing the

difference in diameter of incoming and outgoing
capillaries

1. Ultrafiltration
Blood from the renal artery is supplied to each Bowman's
capsule by arterioles and capillaries which eventually
form a ball of tiny capillaries inside the capsule called a
glomerulus.
The afferent arteriole which leads to the glomerulus has a
larger diameter than the efferent arteriole which leaves the
glomerulus.
The blood in the glomerulus is under high hydrostatic
pressure.
As a result, the fluid in the glomerulus is forced / diffuse
out into the lumen of the Bowmans capsule.
Only small molecules can be filtered, large molecules
such as blood protein and blood cells cannot pass
through the tiny pores in the walls of the capillary and
Bowmans capsule.

1. Ultrafiltration
Blood (together with unfiltered substances)now leaves the
Bowman's capsule in another arteriole and then diffuse
through many tiny blood capillaries that twine themselves
round and round the tubules.
Now, the substances which have been filtered out in the
glomerulus called as glomerular filtrate.
The main component: water, urea, glucose, amino acids
and salts.

2. Reabsorption
As the filtrate passes through the proximal convoluted
tubule, all the glucose, amino acids, hormones, vitamins,
and some salts are reabsorbed by active transport into the
blood capillary. But, urea is not reabsorbed.
With these solutes now removed, the glomerular filtrate
becomes dilute, and about 65% of water is reabsorbed
into the blood capillaries by osmosis.
As the filtrate passes along the loop of Henle, about 20%
of the water and some salts (sodium and chloride ions)
are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries.
At the Loop of Henle, the ion content is also adjusted to
maintain the blood pH of between 7.3 - 7.4.
As the fluid passes on through the distal convoluted
tubule and collecting duct, some adjustments are made
and further reabsorption of water and salt may take place,
depending on the current needs of the body.

3. Secretion
Along the distal convoluted tubule, waste products such as
urea, uric acid and ammonia are secreted out from the blood
capillaries into the distal convoluted tubule by active
transport.
This process is called secretion.
Secretion takes place in the renal tubules (proximal, loop of
Henle, distal) and collecting ducts but is especially active at
the distal convoluted tubule.
Some drugs and other toxic substance are also secreted out
from the blood capillaries by simple diffusion.
The final filtrate which remains in collecting duct is called
urine.
The major constituents of urine are water, mineral salts,
nitrogenous products (urea), ammonia, creatinine and bile
pigment.
From the collecting ducts, the urine flows down the pelvis,
ureter, bladder and the urethra and is finally excreted.
Normally, urine is clear and ranges from pale to deep yellow in
colour. It is slightly acidic

The Formation Of Urine Through A Process Of

Ultrafiltration, Reabsorption and Secretion
Glomerulus

Fluid containing blood cells, plasma proteins

Afferent arteriole
Bowmans capsule
Glomerular filtrate

Blood capillary

Glucose,
amino
acid,
mineral salts reabsorped
through active transport

Proximal convoluted
tubule

65% of water is reabsorbed

through osmosis
More
water
(20%)
is
reabsorped through osmosis

Loop of Henle

Active
secretion
ammonia, urea

Distal convoluted
tubule

More
mineral
reabsorped

Collecting duct

of
salts

More water is reabsorped

depending on the presence
of anti diuretic hormone

Ureter
Urine containing 95% water with urea, ammonia, uric acid,
creatinine, sodium chloride and potassium ions.

Body (cells)

What Is Creatinine?

What Is Creatinine?
Creatinine is a chemical waste molecule that is
generated from musclemetabolism.
Creatinine is produced from creatine, a molecule of
major importance for energy production in muscles.
Approximately 2% of the body's creatine is converted
to creatinine every day.
Creatinine is transported through the bloodstream to
the kidneys.
The kidneys filter out most of the creatinine and
dispose of it in the urine.
Because the muscle mass in the body is relatively
constant from day to day, the creatinine production
normally remains essentially unchanged on a daily
basis.

Why Is It Important To Check Blood

Creatinine Levels?
Creatinine has been found to be a fairly reliable
indicator of kidney function.
Elevated creatinine level signifies impaired
kidney function orkidney disease.
As the kidneys become impaired for any reason,
the creatinine level in the blood will rise due to
poor clearance of creatinine by the kidneys.
Abnormally high levels of creatinine thus warn
of possible malfunction or failure of the kidneys.
It is for this reason that standard blood tests
routinely check the amount of creatinine in the
blood.

A Story Of Camel
Camels live in the desert. They have several
adaptations that allow them to withstand long
periods of time without any water. How the
nephrons in the kidney of the camels adapt
themselves to the desert environment?

Has very long loops

of Henle / very long
nephron / very thick
medulla
More water will be
reabsorbed from the
filtrate (in Loop of
Henle) back into
blood capillary.
So, urine produced

lessOther example:

Changes in Blood Osmotic

Pressure to Urine Output
The water content of the blood determines he
blood osmotic pressure.
When the body loses water through sweating, the
osmotic pressure of blood increases.
The content of water in the body is regulated
through homeostasis.
More water is reabsorbed into the blood by the
kidneys.
Hence, decreasing the amount of urine eliminated
from the body.
Urine also concentrated and dark yellow in colour.

Changes in Blood Osmotic

Pressure to Urine Output
When a person drinks a lot of water, the
osmotic pressure of the blood is low.
Less water is reabsorbed into the
bloodstream.
Excess water from the kidneys is
eliminated as urine.
Increasing the volume of urine output.
Urine is dilute and light yellow in colour.
The higher the water intake, the higher the
volume of urine produced.
Experiment : Effect of water intake to the volume of

B. Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the process of keeping a
constant amount of water and salts in the
blood to maintain the blood osmotic pressure.
Our bodies need to constantly replace the
water being lost in breathing, sweating, urine
and faeces, as our cells cannot function
without sufficient water.
If there is too much water in our bodies,
however, it will move by osmosis into the
cells, which may swell or even burst.
A balance is needed, and again it is the
hypothalamus which maintains this balance .
124

B. The Mechanism of Osmoregulation

When the osmoreceptors in hypothalamus senses too little
water in the blood:
~ for example if you have been sweating a lot during exercise
(osmotic pressure in the blood increases)
(a) Pituitary glands
~ stimulated to release ADH.
~ ADH stops the removal of water from the blood in the
kidneys.
~ Cells lining distal convulated tubule and collecting duct
become more
permeable to water.
~ More water is reabsorbed into the blood.
(b) Adrenal gland
~ not stimulated to release aldosterone
~ less amount of salts reabsorbed
(c) This lowers the osmotic pressure to its normal level.
Urine produced is concentrated and small in amount.
So the blood water level returns to normal.

B. Osmoregulation
When the osmoreceptors in hypothalamus detects too
much water in the blood:
Eg: A person drinks unusually large amount of water.
(Osmotic pressure in the blood decreases)
(a) Pituitary glands
~ NOT stimulated to release ADH.
~ LESS water reabsorbed
(b) Adrenal gland
~ stimulated to release aldosterone
~Cells lining distal convulated tubule and collecting
duct become more
permeable to salts.
~ more salts reabsorbed into blood
(c) This increases the osmotic pressure to its normal
level.
Urine produced is dilute and large in amount.
So the blood water level returns to normal.

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

In our bodys physiology system, homeostasis is
achieved by
using negative feedback mechanisms. There many
example of
homeostatic control that operate by this
mechanisms such as:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

regulating blood sugar level

body temperature
blood pressure
blood osmotic pressure
partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide

(Refer Textbook page 105-108)

Consequences of Impaired Kidney Function:

Haemodialysis
Haemodialysis Machine
Anticoagulant
(heparin) is added
to prevent blood
clotting
Flow of
blood

dialysis fluid
goes out

Pam
Bubble trap
From radial artery
blood returns
to patient
To vein
Dialysis fluid (containing glucose,
amino a. and inorganic ions and is
isotonic to blood plasma.)

Glucose,
amino acid and
urea
diffuse
out of blood
into
dialysis
fluid
semi-permeable
tube

Consequences of Impaired Kidney Function:

Haemodialysis
Is a process whereby a dialysis machine is used
to remove metabolic wastes such as excess
water, urea, excess mineral salts from the blood.
During haemodialysis, the patients blood is
drawn out from radial artery of arm.
An anticoagulant such as heparin is added and
the blood flows into coiled tubing.
Coiled tubing with a semi permeable wall
bathed in a sterile dialysis fluid.
The concentration of the dialysis fluid in the
machine is maintained at a concentration
similar to the blood plasma.

Consequences of Impaired Kidney Function:

Haemodialysis
The dialysis fluid is constantly flowing and
changed regularly to remove the waste
substances and to maintain the diffusion gradient
between patients blood and the dialysis fluid.
As the blood flows through the coiled tubing, the
urea and salts which are higher in
concentration in the blood diffuse out
across the tubing walls into the dialysis fluid
which has lower concentration of urea and salts.
Hence, urea and excess salts can be removed
from the blood.
The osmotic pressure can be maintained at a
normal level.
Purified blood is then returned to the vein of the
same arm of the patient

Kidney Donation and Transplant

A kidney transplant is an alternative
to
treating
kidney
failure
(haemolysis)
Damaged
kidney

The failed kidney is then removed

from the patient and replaced with
donor kidney.

Donor
kidney

Donor
ureter

Urinary
bladder

There is a risk that the recipients

body may reject the transplanted
organ
Immunosuppressant
(antirejection
drugs) are used to counteract organ
rejection

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

In our bodys physiology system, homeostasis is achieved
by
using negative feedback mechanisms.
There many example of homeostatic control that operate
by this mechanisms such as:

a. regulating blood sugar level

b. body temperature
c. blood pressure
d. blood osmotic pressure
e. partial pressure of oxygen and carbon
dioxide
(Refer Textbook page 105-108)

Negative Feedback
Mechanisms
1) Regulation Of Blood
Sugar Level

Normal Regulation of Blood

Glucose

134

Regulation Of Blood Sugar Level

The picture shows the intimate relationship both insulin and glucagon
have to each other. Note that the pancreas serves as the central
player in this scheme.
It is the production of insulin and glucagon by the pancreas which
ultimately determines if a patient has diabetes, hypoglycemia, or
some other sugar problem.
The human body wants blood glucose (blood sugar) maintained in a
very narrow range.
Insulin and glucagon are the hormones which make this happen.
Both insulin and glucagon are secreted from the pancreas, and thus
are referred to as pancreatic endocrine hormones.

135

Negative Feedback Mechanism In The

Regulation Of Blood Sugar Level

A) Glucose level rises than normal:

~ pancreas secrete insulin.

~ conversion excess glucose to glycogen

~ respiration of glucose increases
~ conversion of glucose to lipids
~ glucose level is lowered and back to
normal.
136

Negative Feedback Mechanism In The

Regulation Of Blood Sugar Level

B) Glucose level falls than normal:

~ pancreas secrete glucagon.

~ conversion of glycogen to glucose

~ conversion of lipids to glucose
~ glucose level is rises and back to
normal.
137

2) Temperature Regulation of the

Human Body
The human body
temperature optimally at
37C-39C.
The skin plays an important
role in regulating the body
temperature.
Thermoreceptors (cold and
warm receptors) in the skin
detect changes in the
environmental temperature.
Hypothalamus detect
changes in the temperature
of the blood flowing past it.
138

Temperature Regulation of the Human

Body
Thermoreceptors are important for detecting changes in
the core temperature of the body.
The thermoreceptors are stimulated by the changes in
temperature.
Nerve impulses are transmitted along the afferent
neurone to the hypothalamus.
The hypothalamus acts as the temperature regulatory
centre.
It causes the effectors to respond by negative feedback
through corrective mechanism to restore the
temperature back to its normal level.
The effectors respond by physical means ( involving the
skin) and by the process of metabolism (involving the
endocrine gland).
139

Regulation Of Body Temperature By Physical Means

In cold environment:
a) Action of hair erector muscles
~ hair erector muscles are stimulated to contract
~ hairs become erect
~ a thick layer of air is trapped
~ air being a poor conductor of heat prevents heat loss by
conduction and radiation.

b) Action of blood capillaries

~ vasoconstriction occurs ; blood capillaries constrict
~ less blood flows close to the body surface
~ heat los by conduction and radiation is reduced.
c) Action of sweat glands
~ sweat gland inactive
~ less sweat produced
~ rate of evaporation very low
~ heat is conserved.

Regulation Of Body Temperature By Physical Means

In a warm environment:
a) Action of hair erector muscles
~ hair erector muscles are relax
~ hairs lies flat
~ very little of air is trapped
~ heat is easily loss by conduction and radiation
b) Action of blood capillaries
~ vasodilation occurs ; blood capillaries dilate
~ more blood flows close into the capillaries and close to the body
surface
~ heat loss by conduction and radiation is increased.
c) Action of sweat glands
~ sweat gland active
~ more sweat produced
~ rate of evaporation is high
~ heat is lost from the skin , cooling the skin

Regulation Of Body Temperature By Metabolism

Means
In a cold environment:
a) Action of muscles
~ Voluntary muscular activity is increased such as rubbing
the hands to keep warm.
~ Involuntary muscle contract and relax frequently leading to
shivering to produce heat.
b) Action of adrenal glands
~ Adrenal glands stimulates the secretion of adrenaline
which causes an increase in the metabolic rate.
~ More heat is produced.
c) Action of thyroid glands
~ The thyroid gland is stimulated to secrete thyroxine
~ Metabolic rate is increased
~ more heat is produced.

Regulation Of Body Temperature By Metabolism Means

In a warm environment:
a) Action of muscles
~ Voluntary muscular activity is reduced. Less heat is lost.
~ Involuntary muscle activity is reduced. Less heat is lost.
b) Action of adrenal glands
~ Adrenal glands not stimulated.
~ Less or no adrenaline released.
~Metabolic rate is reduced.
~ Less or no heat is produced.
c) Action of thyroid glands
~ The thyroid gland not stimulated
~ Too little of thyroxine is secreted
~ Metabolic rate is normal
~ Less heat is produced.

3) The Regulation Of Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is regulated by means of nerve

impulses as well as hormones.
Blood pressure low baroreceptors in medulla
oblongata will send out impulses via sympathetic
nerves to increase heartbeat and constrict
arterioles, blood pressure rises back to normal.
Blood pressure is high baroreceptors in medulla
oblongata will send out impulses via parasympathetic
nerves to slow down heartbeat and to dilate
arterioles, blood pressure falls back to normal.

144

Chapter 3 Coordination And

Response

3.5 Practicing A
Healthy Life

3.5 Practising a Healthy Lifestyle

For healthy lifestyle, we must not consume chemicals
that can impair the functions of our nervous system.
E.g. drugs and alcohol.
Drugs are chemicals that can affect the functioning of
organisms and also used for treating diseases
(medicine).
Effects of drugs and alcohol on the nervous system:
a. drug abuse use of drugs without a doctors
prescription (narcotics).
b. addicted always crave for the drugs and may
let to dependence.
c. tolerance take in increasingly higher dosage to
achieve the same physiological
effects. Can cause death.
146

Based on their effects on the nervous system,

drug can be divided into three main group:

(a) Stimulants
(b) Depressants
(c) Hallucinogens

147

(a) Stimulants
Stimulants increase the activity of the either
peripheral nervous system (PNS) , the central
nervous system (CNS) or both.
Stimulants are used :
~ to increase or maintain alertness
~ to counteract fatigue in situations where sleep is
not practical,
~ to counteract abnormal states that diminish
alertness consciousness,
~ to promote weight loss
~ to enhance the ability to concentrate in people
diagnosed with attentional disruptions.
Example of stimulants:
1. Caffeine, found in beverages such as coffee and
soft drinks, as well as nicotine, which is found in
tobacco smoke.
2. other well known stimulants include ephedrine,
amphetamines, cocaine, methylphenidate.
148

(b) Depressants
Drugs which depress the activities of the
nervous system.
Depressants are capable of alternating the
functioning of the cerebrum and give a false
sense of well-being.
E.g. opiates (opium, morphine, heroin and
codeine), barbiturates, tranquilizers, anesthetics
(ether and chloroform) and alcohol (ethanol).

(c) Hallucinogens
Affect perceptions and cause hallucinations.
The user may see and hear things which are
actually non-existent and tend to be highly
emotional.

Alcohol Abuse
Alcohol is kind of depressant.
It weakens the functions of the brain and affects
vision, hearing and speech.
A higher dosage can impair coordination needed to
maintain balance.
The factors may lead to drug and alcohol abuse:
a. A chaotic home environment and lack of affection
from parents
b. Emotional distress
c. Peer influence
d. Curiosity
e. Having parents who take drugs
150

Chapter 3 Coordination And

Response

3.6 Plant Hormones

What Plant Hormone Are?

In plants, response is controlled by chemicals
called plant hormones or plant growth
regulators.
A plant hormone is an organic chemical which is
produced by the plant and influences the growth
and development of the plant.
It brings about its effect near the site of its
formation or it may be transported to the
other parts of the plant where it acts.

Examples of Plant Hormones

Auxins
Auxins promote stem elongation
Gibberellins
Gibberellins promote stem elongation. They are not produced
in stem tip. Gibberellic acid was the first of this class of
hormone to be discovered.
Cytokinins
Cytokinins promote cell division. They are produced in growing
areas, such as meristems at tip of the shoot. Zeatin is a
hormone in this class, and occurs in corn (Zea ).
Ethylene / Ethene
Ethylene is a gas produced by ripe fruits. Ethylene is used to
ripen crops at the same time. Sprayed on a field it will cause all
fruits to ripen at the same time so they can be harvested.

Experiment: Study The Effects

Of Ethylene On The Process Of
Fruit Ripening

Has anyone told you to put unripe banana in the

bag with the ripen apples or pear?

The Effect of Auxins on Growth Responses

Auxins
Plants respond to stimuli by growing in a certain direction.
This growth response is called tropism.
The characteristics of auxins:
~ Auxins are produced in the apical meristems of shoot and
roots in the cell division zone.
(Refer to Textbook, page 113, Figure 3.27)
~ It is sensitive and moves away from sunlight and
accumulate in the shaded side.
~ A high concentration of auxins stimulates cells elongation
in the cell elongation zone of the shoot.

The Effect Of Auxins On Growth

Responses
Auxins
~ A high concentration of auxins inhibit cell
elongation in the cell elongation zone of the root.
~ Auxins can diffuse through a medium that allows
diffusion to occur such as agar block (jelly) but not
through metals or solids.
~ Diffusion of auxin is influenced by gravity and light.

Primary Growth In The Shoot Tip

Zone of cell division

Apical meristem

Zone of elongation
Zone of differentiation

Phloem

Permanent tissues

Axillary
bud

Primary Growth In The Root Tip

Permanent tissues
Zone of differentiation

Root hair
Xylem
Phloem

Zone of elongation

Cell elongates

Zone of cell division

Apical meristem
Root cap

Growth Zone At The Root Tip

Xylem vessel
Zone of
differentiation

Cells
elongate

Cells undergoing
mitosis

Zone of
elongation

Zone of
division

Experiments To Study The Effect Of Auxins On The Growth

Of Coleoptile for Maize Seedlings.

Inference
The tip of the coleoptile
influences growth in the
zone of elongation

Tip of coleoptile cut off

just above zone of
elongation

The tip of the coleoptile

influences growth in the
zone of elongation

Experiments To Study The Effect Of Auxins On The

Growth Of Coleoptile for Maize Seedlings.
Inference
The tip of the
coleoptile influences
growth in the zone
of elongation

Auxins diffuse from

the tip into the agar
block and then into
the coleoptile
promoting growth in
the zone of elongation

Experiments To Study The Effect Of Auxins On The

Growth Of Coleoptile for Maize Seedlings.

Auxins diffuse directly from the agar block

into one side of the coleoptile.
It promotes elongation of one side of the
coleoptile.
Hence causing the coleoptile to bend

Role of Auxins in Tropism.

Auxins control the growth movements
of shoots and roots in plants.
This type of response where the
direction of growth movement is
determined by the direction of the
stimulus is called tropism

Examples Of Tropism

Tropism Stimulu Responses

s

Phototropis
m

Direction of
light from
one side

Geotropism

Force of
gravity

Region
sensitive
to
stimulus

Shoots bend towards

light (positive
phototropism)
Roots grow away
from light (negative
phototropism)
Tips of shoot or
roots
Shoots grow
upwards against the
force of gravity
(Negative
geotropism)
Roots grow
downwards in the
direction of gravity

The Role Of Auxins In Phototropism

Exp 1

Light in all directions.

Auxins are produced in the apical meristem at the tip of
coleoptile.
Auxins diffuse into the zone of elongation.
Distribution of auxins is uniform.
Rate of growth of cells in the zone of elongation is the
same.
The coleoptile grows straight upwards

The Role Of Auxins In Phototropism

Exp 2

In the shoot, auxins are produced in meristem cells.

Auxins diffuse into the zone of elongation.
More auxins accumulate on shaded side.
Concentration of auxins on shaded side is higher.
The accumulation of auxins in the shaded region
stimulates growth
Cells on shaded side of zone of elongation grows
more quickly than cells on the light side.
Therefore, the coleoptile bends and grows towards
light showing positive phototropism.

The Role Of Auxin In Phototropism

Exp 3

In the root, the accumulation of auxins in the shaded

region retards growth
Therefore, the root grows away from light showing
negative phototropism.

The Role Of Auxin In Phototropism

Exp 4

Refer to Textbook, page 114, Figure 3.28 ,

Experiment 3

The Role Of Auxins In Geotropism

A germinating seed is placed in the dark with

its young shoot and root laid out
horizontally.
Gravity causes the tip of growing shoots and
roots to produce auxins.

The Role Of Auxins In Geotropism

Auxins diffuse into zone of elongation.

Owing to gravity, auxins move to lower side of
shoot and root.
Accumulation of auxins at the bottom of the shoot
and root .
This causing higher concentration of auxins on the
lower side than upper side.

The Role Of Auxins In Geotropism

A high concentration of auxins in the shoot stimulates

elongation of cells.
Hence, the lower side of the shoot with a higher
concentration of auxins will grow faster than the upper side.
As a result, the shoot curves and grows upwards.
Shoot shows negative geotropism.
A high concentration of auxins in the root inhibits the
elongation of cells in the root.
The upper side of the root grows faster than the lower side.
The young root curves and grows downward.
Root shows positive geotropism.

SPM Tips
Positive geotropism:
~ helps the roots to grow deeper
into the soil
~ allows the roots to grip and
support the
plant upright.

Uses of Hormones in Agriculture

Auxins
In hormone rooting powders:
~ promotes the growth of adventitious roots from
the cut ends of stems.
~ it helps cuttings to produce roots more quickly.
In parthenocarpy
~ stimulates the development of fruit without
fertilisation.
~ Ovaries develop into a fruit without fertilization.

Uses of Hormones in Agriculture

Auxins
As a herbicides:
~ inhibits the growth of roots
(high auxin concentration)
Prevents fruits from falling before ripening:
~ prevents growing fruits and young leaves
from falling.

Uses of Hormones in Agriculture

Ethylene / Ethene
Stimulates fruit ripening:
~ sprayed on fruits stored in sealed
containers.
Stimulates fruits to fall:
~ sprayed on fruits before harvest

Uses of Hormones in Agriculture

Cytokinin
Stimulates division and elongation of the cells
~ in tissue culture.
To remain green and fresh
~ sprayed to vegetables to ensure that
they remain green and fresh during
packaging.

THE END