Chap07y at

Materi kuliah GD4103 Fotogrametri II, Semester II2012/2013
Chapter 2
Aero-Triangulation
(AT)
Compiled & developed by
Saptomo H Mertotaroeno, Ir., M.Sc.
saptomo@gd.itb.ac.id
KK Inderaja & Sains Informasi Geografis

Fakultas Ilmu dan Teknologi Kebumian
Institut Teknologi Bandung
Contents (Chapter 2A)

Introduction
Ground Control for AeroTriangulation
Stages of Aero-Triangulation
Polynomial Strip and Block
Adjustment
Block Adjustment by Independent
Models
Bundle Block Adjustment
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Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM
Contents (Chapter 2B)

Numerical Aspects of Bundle
Adjustment
Block Adjustment with Added
Parameters
Bundle Adjustment with AirborneGPS Control
Aero-Triangulation with Satellite
Images
Evaluation of the Block Adjustment
Accuracy of the Block Adjustment
7/30/16 09:24:04 AM

Chapter 2A
Aero-Triangulation
(AT)

Contents (Chapter 2A)

Introduction
Ground Control for AeroTriangulation
Stages of Aero-Triangulation
Polynomial Strip and Block
Adjustment
Block Adjustment by Independent
Models
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Definisi Aero-Triangulasi
AT in Photogrammetric Topographic Mapping Process
Aplikasi Aero-Triangulasi
Principles of Aero-Triangulation
The Development of Block Triangulation
B e rk a s
INTRODUCTION
SESU DAH
SEBELU M
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
Definisi Aero-Triangulasi
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
Definisi Aero-Triangulasi / AT
(1)
Asal-usul istilah Aero-Triangulasi :

Triangulasi : metode penentuan posisi yang pertama
kali digunakan untuk daerah yang (sangat) luas.
Jadi istilah Triangulasi identik dengan penentuan
posisi.
Aero-Triangulasi : penentuan posisi dengan media foto
udara.
Beberapa
istilah
:
Tidak ada
hubungannya
dengan jaring segitiga.
Aero-Triangulation
(Aero-Triangulasi),
Aerial
Triangulation (Triangu-lasi Udara) : triangulasi foto
udara.
Photogrammetric
Triangulation
(Triangulasi
Fotogrametrik),
Photo-Triangulation
:
mencakup
triangulasi foto terestris dan foto udara.
Space Triangulation (Triangulasi Ruang Angkasa) :
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
8
triangulasi citra satelit.
(2)
Berikut ini beberapa definisi Aero-Triangulasi :
1. Proses penentuan koordinat tanah (X,Y,Z) titik-titik di

lapangan (dan di foto) berdasarkan pengukuran
koordinat pada unit dasar fotogra-metrik.
2. Transformasi koordinat secara simultan -seluruh
unit dasar fotogrametrik dalam satu blok- dari sistem
koordinat fotogrametrik ke dalam sistem koordinat
tanah, sehingga titik-titik yang sekawan (unit dasar vs
unit dasar, dan unit dasar vs titik kontrol) akan
berimpit (memiliki koordinat yang sama) Perataan
Blok (Block Adjustment)
. Penentuan orientasi dari seluruh unit dasar secara
simultan akan menghasilkan pemetaan yang lebih
akurat dan konsisten pada seluruh daerah.
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
Satuan/Unit Dasar
Fotogrametrik
S tr ip
M odel
B e rk a s
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
10
(3)
3._Metode
fotogrametrik
untuk
penentuan
posisi/koordinat titik-titik di tanah
tanpa
mengukur langsung di lapangan.
4._Kasus umum untuk penentuan posisi titik secara
fotogra-metrik.
5._Solusi dari banyak stasiun secara simultan
untuk orientasi dari foto (,atau model) dan
perpotongan titik-titik di tanah.
6._Menurunkan/menghasilkan koordinat tanah X,Y,Z
dari titik-titik yang diturunkan dari pengukuranpengukuran koordinat pada foto (,atau model).
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
11
AT in Photogrammetric
Topographic Mapping Process
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
12
AT in
Photogrammetric
Topographic
Mapping Process
AT is located in the critical

path of photogrammetric
mapping process.
Extending or densifying
ground control for use in
subsequent
photogrammetric
operations.
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
It is often called bridging,

because in essence a
bridge of interme-diate
control points is developed
between
field-surveyed
Aero-Triangulation (2A), control
SHM
13
that exists
in only a
Control Points for Photo

Restitution
The minimum number

of ground control points
:
for absolute orientation
2 planimetric, and
3 height,
per model.
for simple rectification
4 planimetric per
photo.
for space resection
3 full control per photo.
The practical minimum number

of control points necessary in
each stereo-model
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14
Absolute Orientation M-43

Scaling M-4
Stereo-model that is not level

(note X and Y components of tilt)
Levelling M-3
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15
Simple Rectification
(, , , XL , YL , ZL) ?
Known
Simple
rectification is a
method of determining the eight
Measured para-meters
of
projective
equations (, ,
, XL , YL , ZL , X ,
Y) or (a0 , b0 , a1 ,
b1 , c1 , a2 , b2 , c2).
(X , Y) ?
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
This
method
requi-res
a
minimum
of
four
control
points,
with
known XY object
space
16
coordi-nates, to
(, , , XL , YL , ZL) ?
Measured
Known
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
Space
Resection
Space resection
is a method of
determining
the
six elements of
ex-terior
orientation (, ,
, XL , YL , and ZL)
of a photograph.
This method requires
a
minimum
of
three control points, with known
XYZ
object
space
coordi17
nates,
to
be
AT versus Ground Surveying

For large mapping projects,
the number of control points
needed is extensive, and the
cost of establishing them can be
extremely high if it is done
exclusively by field survey
methods.
Much of this needed control is
now routinely being established
by
aero-triangulation
from
only a sparse network of field
surveyed ground control and at a
substantial
cost
and
time
savings.
The use of kinematic GPS in
the
aircraft
to
provide
Blok model dengan titik-titik
coordinates of the camera at the
kontrol yang diperlukan
instant of exposure can eliminate
untuk restitusi
the need for ground control
7/30/16 09:24:05 AM
18
entirely.
Benefits of AeroTriangulation
Besides having an economic advantages
over field surveying,
aero-triangulation has other benefits :

1. Most of the work is done under laboratory conditions, thus
minimizing delays and hardships due to adverse weather
conditions;
2.Access to much of the property within a project area is not
required;
3. Field surveying in difficult areas, such as marshes, extreme
slopes, and hazardous rock formations, can be minimized; and
4. The accuracy of the field-surveyed control necessary for bridging
is verified during AT process.
. Chances of finding erroneous control values after initiation of
com-pilation are minimized and usually eliminated.
. Some organizations perform bridging even though adequate
field-surveyed control exist for stereo-model control.
. AT be used to establish photo control.
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19
Aplikasi Aero-Triangulasi
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20
Aplikasi Aero-Triangulasi (1)

Apart from bridging for subsequent photogrammetric operations, AT
can be used in a variety of other applications in which precise ground
coordinates are needed although most of these uses have been largely
supplanted by GPS.
1.Aplikasi utama : untuk pemetaan topografik (mapping).
. Menghasilkan titik kontrol minor untuk pemetaan.
. Titik kontrol minor : titik kontrol yang koordinat tanahnya ditentukan
dengan aero-triangulasi.
. Titik kontrol minor digunakan untuk restitusi fotogrametrik.
. dilanjutkan dengan line-mapping, or photo-mapping.
. Titik kontrol tanah = titik kontrol mayor (major).
2._Aplikasi lainnya : untuk penentuan posisi, atau fotogrametri non-topografik.
a. In property surveying, AT can be used to locate section corners and
property corners , or to locate evidence that will assist in finding these
corners. (Cadastre, Germany).
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21
Aplikasi Aero-Triangulasi (2)

b._In topographic mapping, AT can be used to develop DEM
by computing X, Y, and Z ground coordinates of a systematic

network of points in an area.
c._AT has been used successfully for densifying geodetic
control networks in area surrounded by tall buildings where

problems due to multipath cause a loss of accuracy in GPS
surveys.
d._Special application include the precise determination of
the relative positions of large machine parts during

fabrication, such in shipbuilding and aircraft manufacture.
(Terestrial & Close-range Photogrammetry, Industrial
Photogrammetry).
e._Studi
deformasi bangun rekayasa, mis. jembatan,

bendungan.
(Terestrial
Photogrammetry,
Engineering
Photogrammetry).
7/30/16 09:24:06 AM
Mg.10.1
22 31/10/12
Mg.10.2 01/11/12
Principles of AeroTriangulation
7/30/16 09:24:06 AM
23
Principles of AeroTriangulation
Input :
strips, models, or images coordinate;
In digital system, the basic unit is usually bundle.
ground control coordinates with specific

configuration;
with(out) auxiliary data, e.g kinematic-GPS, INS,
additional geo-metric information.
Process : (see Stages of Aerial Triangulation

slide)
simultaneous adjustment of photogrammetric block
in one go.
Mathematically, AT is a simultaneous coordinate
transformation of basic units to object space
coordinate system.
Output :
coordinates of minor control points (tie

24
points), and Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM
7/30/16 09:24:06 AM
Klasifikasi Aero-Triangulasi
berdasarkan Unit/Satuan
Dasar
(Analog, Analitis, Dijital)
F o to
B e rk a s
M odel
S tr ip
P e r a ta a n S trip
Strip Formation :
Analog,
Analitis.
P e r a ta a n M o d e l
Orientasi Relatif :
Analog,
Analitis,
Dijital.
P e r a ta a n B e r k a s
Bobby 2004
7/30/16 09:24:06 AM
25
Aero-triangulation &
Photogrammetric Restitution
Independent Model
Triangulati-on (Model
Block Adjustment) is
simultaneous absolute
orientati-on of the whole
models into ground
coordinate system.

is simultaneous resection
and intersection of the whole
images/photos into ground
coordinate system.
Collinearity conditions,
6-unknowns of exterior
orien-tation parameters
per photo (, , , XL, YL,
ZL),
3-unknown coordinates per
tie point (X, Y, Z). (Minor
control points)
3-D similarity
transformation,
7-unknowns of absolute
orien-tation parameters
per model (s, , , , X0,
Y0, Z0),
7/30/16
09:24:06 AM
3-unknown
coordinates
26
Filosofi Aero-Triangulasi
1.Lakukan konversi dari analog ke dijital sedini
mungkin.
. Akuisisi data / perolehan data / pengadaan data / pengukuran koordinat adalah konversi dari analog ke dijital.
. Analog : foto udara fotografik; fisis bumi.
. Dijital : data koordinat.
. Urutan kedinian unit dasar fotogrametrik : foto model strip.
. Diusahakan dimulai dari koordinat foto.
2. Sebanyak mungkin lakukan hitungan secara dijital /

analitis.
. Instrumen hanya sebagai penghasil data koordinat, proses
selanjut-nya adalah hitungan-hitungan dengan model matematis
tertentu -sehingga lebih fleksibel-.
. Perataan simultan untuk keseluruhan blok.
. Titik berat pengembangan adalah pada perataan dan
pengolahan data.
7/30/16 09:24:07 AM
27
System of Aero-Triangulation
Aerial
Photos
Auxiliary
Data :
Ground Control
Coordinates
XL ,YL , ZL
(GPS)
, ,
(INS)
Relative
data
(with specific
configuration)
Output :
Coordinates of minor
control points, and
Transformation
parameters of basic
unit.
Preparation :
Project Preparation
Control and Image Point Selection
and Coding
Image Point Marking and Cross
Data Acquisition :
Marking
Control and Image Point
Mensuration
(Image, Model, or Strip
Coordinates)
Data Processing :
Yes
No
(check,
recheck,
edit, repeat)
Pre-processing :
Data reduction and
conditioning
Gross error detection
Block Adjustment
7/30/16 09:24:07 AM
Accepte
d?
Result
Analysis
28
The Development of
Block Triangulation
7/30/16 09:24:07 AM
29
Summary of
the Development of Block
Triangulation
Jeries Analog Computer

(aeropolygon)
7/30/16 09:24:07 AM
(stereoplotter)
Mg.10.2
30 01/11/12
The Development of Block

Triangulation (1)
Mg.11.1 06/11/12
The development of block triangulation has been driven by the

advances in computational power.
Before the advent of computers, AT methods used analog devices,
or graphical techniques, e.g. slotted template (horizontal), Jeries
analog computer (vertical).
Early analytical methods were designed to use the output of existing
stereo-plotters and to minimized the amount of computation required
by combining individual images into larger units, then polynomial
strip adjustment methods were modeled. (strip block adjustment)
This procedures involved manual interior, relative, and absolute orientation
of the successive models of long strips of photos using stereoscopic plotting
instruments having several projectors.
This created long strip models from which coordinates of pass points could
be read directly. (Strip coordinates system)
Later, universal stereo-plotting instruments were developed which enable
this process to be accomplished with only two projectors (base-in & baseout).
7/30/16 09:24:07 AM
31
Radial Line Triangulation

(horizontal position only)
Slotted Template
Triangulation
7/30/16 09:24:07 AM
32
Jeries Analog Computer for

AT
(vertical position
only)
7/30/16 09:24:07 AM
33
Sequential Strip
Formation
in Analog Instrument
(Multiplex)
(aeropolygon)
7/30/16 09:24:07 AM
34
Principles of Strip
Pada perataan dgn unit
Adjustment
dasar strip (jalur), strip
S tr ip 1
dapat dipero-leh :
S tr ip 2
S tr ip 3
T itik k o n tr o l ta n a h
S E B E L U M P E R ATA A N
Secara
analog
pada
instrumen
analog
dengan
kemampuan
base-in dan base-out,
Polynomial Adjustment
T itik ik a t ( t ie p o in t )
S E S U D A H P E R ATA A N
S tr ip 1
S tr ip 2
S tr ip 3
7/30/16 09:24:08 AM
Secara
analitis
model ana-log
dari
Secara
analitis
dari
model ana-litis
Titik ikat (tie point)
antar jalur terletak pada
daerah sidelap
35

Triangulation (2)
Independent model algorithms reduce the number of
parameter required by working with models instead of actual
images and simplifying the computation required.
This algorithms involves manual interior and relative
orientation of stereo-models within a stereo-plotter, followed
by measurement of model coordinates.
Simultaneous
absolute
orientation
is
performed
numerically (model block adjustment).
At the present time, nearly all block triangulation is done using
the bundle method, which allows the integration of additional
geometric or navigational information.
Bundle methods consist of photo coordinates measurement,
followed
by
simultaneous
space-resection
and
-intersection from which ground coordinates are computed
(bundle block adjustment).
7/30/16 09:24:08 AM
36
Principles of Independent Model

Triangulation (1)
T it ik k o n tr o l ta n a h
M odel
T it ik ik a t ( t ie p o in t )
Secara analitis dari

koor-dinat berkas
M-4
SEBELU M
7/30/16 09:24:08 AM
Pada
perataan
dengan u-nit model,
model dipero-leh :
Secara analog pada
ins-trumen analog
SESU D AH
Hubungan
antar
model
dimungkinkan dengan
ada-nya
titik
ikat
model
dan
ti-tik
pusat proyeksi.
pada M-4 hanya
37
titik i-kat model
Principles of Independent Model

Triangulation (2)
M-7, M-43
M-4
7/30/16 09:24:08 AM
38
Principles of Bundle Block

(foto)
Adjustment Berkas
dipero-leh :
B e rk a s
Simultaneous
Space-Resection
and -Intersection
SESU D AH
SEBELUM
7/30/16 09:24:08 AM
Secara
analog
de-ngan
pengukuran
di
komparator,
Secara dijital dengan
pengukuran citra dijital pada
Hubungan antar
mo-nitor.
frame
dimungkinkan
dengan
adanya
titik
ikat
foto
dengan
pola
39
seperti
pada

Triangulation (3)
The availability of accurate navigational information
has also advanced block triangulation.
Using the Global Positioning System (GPS) to
determine exposure station positions (XL ,YL ,ZL)
essentially makes a control point of each exposure
station, reducing control requirements for the block to
minimal configurations.
Improved attitude ( determination by Inertial
Navigation Systems (INS) is also beginning to have
a significant impact on triangulation, especially for
non-frame sensors.
Jadi, unsur orientasi luar, selain sebagai
parameter, juga sebagai data pengamatan.
7/30/16 09:24:08 AM
40
anu
Introduction
Selecting Photo Control Images
Number and Location of Photo Control
Planning the Control Survey
Artificial Targets for Photo Identifiable Control Points
Indexing Ground Control
GROUND CONTROL FOR

AERO-TRIANGULATION
7/30/16 09:24:08 AM
41
Introduction
Photogrammetric control consists of any points whose
positions are known in an object-space reference coordinate
system and whose images can be positively identified in the
photographs.
In aerial photogrammetry, the object space is the ground surface.
Photogrammetric control or ground control provides the means
for orienting or relating aerial photographs to the ground.
The accuracy of finished photogrammetric products can

be no better than the ground control upon which they are
based.
Many maps and other items that have been carefully prepared in the
office to exacting standards have failed to pass field inspection simply
because the ground control was of poor quality.
The cost of establishing ground control for photogrammetric
mapping is between 10 to 50 percent of the total project cost.
7/30/16 09:24:08 AM
42
Selecting Photo Control

Images
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43
Selecting Photo Control Images (1)

(Natural Points and Man Made Features, Photo Points)
Images of acceptable photo control points must

satisfy two re-quirements :
1. They must be sharp, well defined, and positively identified on all
photos; and
2. They must lie in favorable locations in the photographs.
Control surveys for photogrammetry are normally

conducted af-ter the photography has been obtained.
. This ensures that the above two requirements can be met.
Photo control images are selected after careful study of the

photos.
. The study should include the use of stereoscope to ensure a clear
stereoscopic view of all points selected. (horizontal vs vertical
view)
7/30/16 09:24:09 AM
44
Stereoskop-Cermin & -Saku

Stereoskop
cermin
untuk pe-milihan citra
titik kontrol foto dan
pembuatan sketsa di
kan-tor / laboratorium.
Stereoskop saku untuk
pemi-lihan
citra
titik
kontrol
foto
dan
pembuatan sketsa di
lapangan.
7/30/16 09:24:09 AM
45

Images for horizontal control must be very
sharp and well de-fined horizontally.
Because their horizontal positions on the photographs
must be pre-cisely measured.
Some
objects
whose
images
are
commonly
satisfactory for horizon-tal control are intersections of
sidewalks, intersections of roads, manhole covers,
small lone bushes, isolated rocks, corners of buildings,
fence corners, power poles, points on bridges,
intersection of small trails or watercourses, etc.
Care must be exercised to ensure that control points
do not fall in shadowed areas on some photos.
7/30/16 09:24:09 AM
46

Images for vertical control must be well defined
vertically.
Best vertical control points are small, flat or slightly
crowned areas.
The small areas should have some natural features nearby,
such as trees or rocks, which help to strengthen stereoscopic
depth perception.
Large, open areas such as the tops of grassy hills or open

fields should be avoided.
Because of the difficulties they cause in stereoscopic depth
perception.
Intersections of roads and sidewalks, small patches of grass,

small bare spots, etc., make excellent vertical control
points.
7/30/16 09:24:09 AM
47

Mistakes in point identification are common and
costly.
A power pole, for example, may be located in the field,
but it may not be the same pole whose image was
identified on the photos.
Mistakes such as this can be avoided by identifying enough
other details in the immediate vicinity of each point so that
verification is certain.
A pocket stereoscope taken into the field can be
invaluable in point identification,
not only because it magnitude images,
but also because hills and valleys which aid in object
verification can be seen both on the photos and on the ground.
7/30/16 09:24:10 AM
48
Number and Location

of Photo Control
7/30/16 09:24:10 AM
49
Number and Location of Photo Control (1)

Control recommended
for orienting stereomodels
in a stereoscopic plotting instrument
The prudent photogrammetrist

will utilize some amount of
redundant control.
As a practical minimum,
each stereomodel oriented in
a plot-ter should have three
horizon-tal and four vertical
control points.
The horizontal points should
be fairly widely spaced.
The vertical control points
should be near the corners of
the model.
7/30/16 09:24:10 AM
50

The amount of ground-surveyed photo control
needed for AT will vary, depending upon
the size, shape, and nature of the area to be covered,
the resulting accuracy required, and
the procedures, instruments, and personnel to be used.
The more dense the ground-surveyed network of

photo control, the better the resulting accuracy in
the minor control point.
There is an optimum amount of ground-surveyed photo
control,
which affords maximum economic benefit from AT
and at the same time maintains a satisfactory standard of
accuracy
(not included in this lecture)
7/30/16 09:24:10 AM
51

If AT of a strip of photos is to be performed
for the purpose of obtaining control for orienting
stereo-models in a stereo-plotter,
a minimum of about two horizontal and three or
four vertical ground-surveyed photo control points
should appear in approxi-mately every fifth stereomodel along the strip.
Example
of control
configura
tion for a
strip of
photogra
phs
7/30/16 09:24:10 AM
52

For AT of blocks of photos, the ground-surveyed
control
should
be
systematically
arranged
throughout the block.
Best control configurations consist of horizontal
control along the periphery of the block with a uniform
distribution of vertical control throughout the block.
With the airborne GPS control, the groundsurveyed control is taken into minimum.
(See the next 5 slides)
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
53
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
Distribusi
TKT/GCP untuk
IMT Tanpa TKU
54
Distribusi TKT/GCP untuk IMT

Tanpa TKU
Titik kontrol horizontal (TKH) terletak pada
keliling (perimeter) batas daerah pemetaan.
Jarak antara TKH disebut bridging distance
horizontal iho dengan satuan basis model, contoh iho
= 4 b.
Titik kontrol vertikal (TKV) berupa jalur titik

tinggi yang tegak-lurus arah terbang pada awal dan
akhir jalur terbang serta beberapa jalur di
antaranya.
TKV umumnya terletak :
pada sidelap;
pada perimeter, antara dua jalur titik tinggi terdapat satu
TKV.
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
55
Jarak antara dua jalur titik tinggi disebut bridging
Configurat
ion of
Flight
Strips for
Airborne
Cross
strips are
flown GPS
at the ends
of the re-gular
Control
block strips.
The cross strips
con-tain ground
control points
at each end.
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
56
A conventional aerotriangulation block with

control distribution
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
57
Planning the Control

Survey
In planning the control survey, maximum advantage should be taken of
existing control in the area.
Caution should always be exercised in using existing control if it is of unknown

accuracy.
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
59
Horizontal Accuracy for Hardcopy

Map (1)
U.S. National Map Accuracy Standards (NMAS)
require that at least 90% of the principal planimetric
features be plotted :
to within 1/30 in (0.8 mm) on their true positions for
map scales of 1 : 20,000 or larger,
On a map plotted at a scale of 1 : 600, this represents an
allowable horizontal map error of 0.5 m (0.8 mm x 600) on
the ground.
to within 1/50 in (0.5 mm) for scales smaller than 1 :

20,000.
On a map at a scale of 1 : 24,000, the allowable horizontal
map error is 12 m (0.5 mm x 24,000).
Horizontal photo control must be located to

7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
(2A), SHM
60
greater accuracyAero-Triangulation
than the
allowable horizontal
Horizontal Accuracy for Hardcopy

Map (2)
A rule of thumb in topographic mapping
states
that photo control should contain error no greater than
about to the horizontal map accuracy tolerance.
0.125 0.167 m for 1 : 600 map scale.
3 4 m for 1 : 24,000 map scale.
In statistical sense : since 90% of the values in a

normal distribution lie within 1.645 times the standard
deviation, to be accurate :
to within
deviation
to within
deviation
0.8 mm would require a

of 0.8/1.645 = 0.486 mm
0.5 mm would require a
of 0.5/1.645 = 0.304 mm
horizontal map standard

x scale factor, and
horizontal map standard
x scale factor.
The horizontal map standard deviation is the function of

7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
Aero-Triangulation
SHM 2
61
2
2
2
mapping process. (map
= GCP2 (2A),
+
+
)
AT
ori
dig
Vertical Accuracy for Hardcopy

Map (1)
U.S. National Map Accuracy Standards require
that at least 90% of all points tested for elevation
be correct to within one-half the contour interval
(c.i.).
A rule of thumb in topographic mapping
states
that elevations of vertical photo control points should
be correct to within 1/5 of the c.i.;
but as an additional safety factor, some agencies
require that their accuracy be within 1/10 of the c.i.
A map being plotted with a contour interval of 1 m requires
vertical photo control accurate to within 0.1 m.
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
62
Vertical Accuracy for Hardcopy

Map (2)
In statistical sense : since 90% of the values in a
normal distribution lie within 1.645 times the
standard deviation, to be accurate to within half the
c.i. would require a vertical map standard deviation
of (0.5 c.i.)/1.645.
E.g., to map with a 1 m contour interval, the elevation
must be determined with a standard deviation of 0.304
m (0.5 m/1.645).
The vertical map standard deviation is the function

of mapping process. (map2 = GCP2 + AT2 + ori2 +
dig2 + )
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
63
Accuracy for Digital

Products
Since digital map information may be displayed
at any scale, accuracy standards for such products
must be specified independently of plotting scale.
E.g, the accuracy standards of Federal Geographic
Data Committee (FGDC) titled Geospatial Positioning
Accuracy Standards.
These standards are readily applicable to digital maps
which are stored in a computer and manipulated with CAD
software.
The accuracy can be stated as :

Absolute accuracy,
Relative accuracy, or
Statistics on the size of the largest blunders.
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
64
Absolute Accuracy for Digital

Products (1)
The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) specifies
how accuracy is defined and tested for data in the
National Spatial Data Infrastructure.
Geospatial data accuracy must be defined by reference
to some independent external standard of higher
accuracy.
The independent source may be :
field surveys, such as check profiles for contour and DEM testing,
or
independent photogrammetric checks using larger-scale imagery.
Sufficient check points must be evaluated to obtain a

statistically valid result.
The FGDC standards require that a minimum of 20 check points be
compared between the evaluated and reference data sets.
7/30/16 09:24:11 AM
65
Absolute Accuracy for Digital Products (2)

The accuracy statement is based on the root-meansquare (RMS) of the check points differences.
If the errors are assumed to be normally distributed, the
statistical confidence level can be calculated from the
RMS value by using the RMS value as the standard
deviation.
For one-dimensional errors, such as vertical errors, the
95% confidence region is 1.96 times the RMS value.
For horizontal error, the combined RMS error for both X
and Y coordinates is used.
Since this is a two-dimensional error distribution, the factor for
95% confidence is 2.447.
A digital planimetric map which passes at the 1-m level, for example
would contain the statement
Tested 1-meter horizontal accuracy at 95 % confidence level.
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
66
Relative Accuracy and

Blunders
Relative accuracy describes the internal consistency
of the dataset.
For a DEM, the relative accuracy specifies the accuracy
of the differences in elevation between posts.
A DEM might be affected by an overall vertical shift,
making its absolute accuracy poor, but still have good
relative accuracy.
Statistics on the size of the largest blunders, or

gross errors, pos-sibly present in the data are given.
By their nature, gross errors are difficult to model
statistically, although reliability statistics have been
developed for that purpose.
The blunder limit is a function of the amount of editing
and checking performed on the data.
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
67
Artificial Targets for Photo

Identifiable Control Points
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
68
Pre-marking
In some areas such as prairies, forests, and deserts,
natural point suitable for photogrammetric
control may not exist.
In these cases artificial points called panel points
may be placed on the ground prior to taking the aerial
photography.
Their positions are then determined by field survey
or in some cases by aero-triangulation.
This procedure is called pre-marking or paneling.
Their unique appearance makes misidentification
unlikely.
Artificial targets provide the best possible

photographic images, and therefore they are
used
for
controlling
the
most
precise
7/30/16
09:24:12 AM
Aero-Triangulation
(2A), SHMor not natural point
69
photogrammetric
work,
whether
Disadvantages of Artificial
Targets
(1).Extra work and expense are incurred in
placing the targets.
(2).The targets could be moved between the time
of their placement and the time of photography.
The photography should be obtained as near as
possible to the time of placing targets.
(3).The targets may not appear in favorable

locations on the photographs.
The coverage of each photo can be planned in
relation to target locations, and the positions of
ground principal points can be specified on the flight
plan.
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
70
The Main Elements in Targets

Design
(1).Good color contrast.
Contrast is best obtained using light-colored

targets against a dark background.
Target materials : white paint, plastic, old tires,
stones, etc.
(2).A symmetric target that can be centered over

the control point.
The center panel of the target should be centered
over the control point, since this is the image point
to which measurements will be taken.
The legs help in identifying targets on the photos,
and they also help in determining the exact center
of the target should the image of the center panel
be unclear.
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
71
(3).A target size that yields a satisfactory image on the
Ideal Shape
Artificial Photogrammetric Targets
D = 0.03 0.10 mm on photo
scale,
depending also on the size of
floating mark.
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
72
Other Common
Artificial Photogrammetric Targets
(a).Shows a
target which is
often used
where a
smaller
(b).The target is nearly as effective as that
of (a),target
and it
is needed
has the advantage of being more easily
and quickly
constructed.
(c).The target is less than optimal due to lack of biaxial
symmetry; however, it may be needed in confined
areas such as edges of highways.
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
73
Post-marking
Panel points are needed in an area after the
photography has already been obtained.
Targets are placed in the desired positions.
Supplemental vertical photographs are taken of
each target and surrounding area with a small-format
camera carried in a light aircraft flying at low altitude.
Locations of the targets can then be transferred
stereoscopically from the supplemental photography
to the original photography by using a point-transfer
device.
Zoom magnification of the individual viewing systems of
the point-transfer device eliminates the need for having the
scales of the supplemental and original photography equal.
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
74
Point Transfer & Marking Device

A sketch of a point marker
for hardcopy diapositives
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
Wild PUG-4
stereoscopic point-transfer instrument
75
Indexing Ground Control
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
76
Indexing Ground Control (1)

For each project it is advisable to prepare a set of paper
prints for indexing the ground control.
When positive identification is made, the control point
images should be lightly pricked with a pin to avoid the
possibility of later misidentification mistakes.
E.g., if a control point lies at a particular sidewalk intersection
corner, pricking that corner will offset the possibility of
mistakenly using a different corner at some later time simply
because the written description was misinterpreted.
The pinprick should just penetrate the emulsion, and the pin
should be held at right angles to the paper.
Pricking should be done with the aid of a magnifying glass.
7/30/16 09:24:12 AM
77
Indexing Ground Control (2)

Control point images should be further marked
by surrounding them with appropriate symbols,
depending upon the type of control point.
E.g. :
Identifying numbers or names of control points

should be writ-ten on the control photos beside the
points.
Short, written descriptions should be placed on
the backs of the photos near the pin pricks.
A set of control index photos carefully prepared
can be a valua-ble asset in performing subsequent
photogrammetric
operati-ons.
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
Aero-Triangulation
(2A), SHM
78
Orientasi Sketsa Lokasi TKT

terhadap Foto
(Misal : pojok pagar)
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
79
Problems :
Ground Control for AT
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
80
Tugas No.
Waktu 2 (dua) minggu :
Ketentuan Tugas : sama dengan Tugas no. 1
Kerjakan soal-soal nomor :

16-1 s/d 16.9
16.18 s/d 16.21
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
Aero-Triangulation (2B), SHM
81
Project Preparation
Control and Image Point Selection and Coding
Image Point Marking and Cross Marking
Control and Image Point Mensuration
Block Adjustment
Result Analysis
STAGES OF AEROTRIANGULATION
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
82
System of Aero-Triangulation
Aerial
Photos
Auxiliary
Data :
Ground Control
Coordinates
XL ,YL , ZL
(GPS)
, ,
(INS)
Relative
data
(with specific
configuration)
Output :
Coordinates of minor
control points, and
Transformation
parameters of basic
unit.
Preparation :
Project Preparation
Control and Image Point Selection
and Coding
Image Point Marking and Cross
Data Acquisition :
Marking
Mensuration
(Image, Model, or Strip
Coordinates)
Data Processing :
Yes
No
(check,
recheck,
edit, repeat)
Pre-processing :
Data reduction and
conditioning
Gross error detection
Block Adjustment
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
Accepte
d?
Result
Analysis
83
Project Preparation
Persiapan hardware,
software, brainware, dan
enviroware.
S o ftc o p y
P h o to g r a m m e tr ic
In s tru m e n t
Kalibrasi instrumen (scanner,

XY-plotter).
Conventionally
(analog,
analy-tical), preparing a
project en-tailed laying out
the AT block.
In the digital process, it
has become the process of
import-ing scanned image
files and es-tablishing a file
naming con-vention.
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
84

Selection and Coding
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
85
Control and Image Point Selection and Coding (1)

Control points are point features located by ground
survey me-thods (usually pre-marked or targeted).
Image points are artificial (i.e., not targeted) points that
are se-lected along the principal y-axis of the photo,
often located at von Gruber locations (named for the
methodologys inventor).
Properly selected image points (pass points) should appear
in both the preceding and succeeding photos (triple overlap
location).
A minimum of three or more evenly distributed points are
required per image, and some projects may specify five points.
The lateral image point(s) / tie point(s) :
should falls in the images lateral overlap areas, and

should also appear in the adjacent flight line(s) / sidelap area.
Under this definition, an image point could appear in as

many as six photos (referred to as a six-fold point).
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
86
Pass Points in
Photos, and
Models
(a).Idealized
pass
point
lo-cations
for
aero-triangulation.
(monoscopic
measurement)
Tripleoverlap
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
(b).Pass
point
locations
for
stereoscopic
measure-ment.
(c).Locations of pass
points
in
two
adjacent stereo87
models.
Pass Points in Photo, and

Model
von Grubers
points
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
88
10
fo to 5
11
10
10
16
11
fo to 4
fo to 3
16
fo to 2
fo to 1
3
11
fo to 6
fo to 7
fo to 8
p a s s p o in t
t itik k o n tr o l
A
7/30/16 09:24:13 AM
10
Blok terdiri dari 8

foto dengan titik
kontrol, passpoints, dan tiepoints
Foto-foto secara
individual
16
11
Contoh :
Titik 3, 8, 13, dan 18

adalah tie-points
(sidelap area + triple
overlap),
six-fold points.
Blok foto pada posisi
overlapping
89
Six-fold points
(Less pass and tie points
give stronger geometry,
means higher accuracy of
AT results. Thats why
the points should be
chosen in the triple
overlap areas.)
Five-fold points
7/30/16 09:24:14 AM
90

There are also five-fold point.
Automatic Point Selection and Coding in a
Digital System :
Since the point locations are predictable, the

selection process can be automated.
The point coding procedure is also automated,
since the image file names are unique and the point
numbering scheme must be unambiguous.
Point numbering system : (strip no.)(photo no.)(i = 00, 01,
1222901
02, )
Photo 29
Run 12B
1222900
1222902
7/30/16 09:24:14 AM
91
7/30/16 09:24:14 AM
92
Image Point Marking

and Cross-marking
7/30/16 09:24:14 AM
93
Point Marking and Crossmarking (1)
Conventionally, image points are marked with a Point

Marking device so their locations can be identified for
revisiting.
Professional marking instruments include the Wild Herrbrugg
PUG, the Zeiss PM, the Kern PMG and CPM, and the Jena
Transmark models.
Most such instruments use a motorized drill which

clutches a precise bit that has a predetermined drilling
depth.
The instrument is designed to mark only the emulsion of the
image, without puncturing the base.
The mark itself is typically 40 to 60 microns (m) in size.
Since the Wild PUG was a popular instrument, these points
became referred to as PUG Points.
Image points marked in this fashion must be annotated for

identification, since 60 m is too small for the naked eye.
7/30/16 09:24:14 AM
94

(transfered)
7/30/16 09:24:14 AM
95
Point Transfer & Marking Device (1)

Point
marking
is
necessary :
To
be
able
to
unambiguously
transfer the location
of
the
point
to
overlapping
photographs,
To
have
an
unambiguous po-int to
In
the
triangulation
of
observe for subsehardcopy
i-magery,
physically
marking
pass
quent
absolute
point and tie point locations
orientation in a stereoon the diapositive is an
plotter, and
7/30/16 09:24:14 AM
96
A sketch of a point marker
for hardcopy diapositives
essential step.
Point Transfer & Marking Device (2)

Wild PUG-4
stereoscopic point-transfer instrument
A point marker typically

allows for point selection on
the dia-positive under high
magnifica-tion,
following
which a small drill (from 25
to 100 m in dia-meter)
physically removes the
emulsion at this point so it
be-comes a permanently
mark lo-cation.
Point markers usually are
Point-marking
devices made with stereo-viewing
make small holes in the and -marking ability.
emulsion which become
the
pass points.
7/30/16 09:24:14 AM
97

Points located in the lateral overlap portions of
the photo block are also cross-marked onto
adjacent photo lines.
Since neither analog or analytical instruments
can accommo-date cross-line stereo mensuration in
these locations, cross marking is the only means of
providing the geometric ties between photo
lines.
The quality of marked point largely depends

on the marking instrument.
Any eccentricity in the marking-bit creates a point

much larger than 60 microns.
Transferred points are also subject to Observer
error. (Why ?)
7/30/16 09:24:15 AM
98
Point Marking and Crossmarking for Stereoscopic

Marked
Marked
Marked
Measurements
Crossmarked
(points
transfer)
7/30/16 09:24:15 AM
99
Point Marking and Crossmarking for Monoscopic

B e rk a s
Marked
Points transfer
Measurements
Crossmarked
(points
transfer)
7/30/16 09:24:15 AM
S E B E(2A),
L U MSHM
Aero-Triangulation
100

Revisiting Points in a Digital System :
Once the image points is marked (digitized), it has a
unique (sub)pixel address with reference to the photo
coordinate system. (Point marking by its digital
photo coordinates)
If an operator needs to revisit a mark (for example,
during cross-marking), the monitor cursor simply
searches out and locks onto that pixel address.
Cross-marking can then be accomplished by clearing
local parallax and digitizing the new point.
(It can be done also by digital image matching,
automated procedures using digital photography).
The point marking instrument is now redundant.

7/30/16 09:24:15 AM
101
Automated Selection of Pass

Points by Digital Image
Matching
Points are selected in the overlap areas of digital
images and are automatically matched between
adjacent images, thus achieving pass point
selection and photo coordinate measurement simultaneously.
This method requires little operator intervention
and is there-fore a very economical process.
An added benefit is that a large number of pass
points can be generated with minimum effort, which
adds redundancy and strengthens the aerotriangulation solution.
7/30/16 09:24:15 AM
102
Finding
corresponding elements in the two
images
by
matching
small
regions from the
left and right images of a stereopair
in
aerotriangulation
7/30/16 09:24:15 AM
103

Mensuration
7/30/16 09:24:15 AM
104

Mensuration
The goal of the mensuration process is to
accurately measure and record the photo
coordinates (x,y) of each control and i-mage point.
These photo coordinates are logged in a data file,
which is used by a block adjustment program.
Mensuration can be performed using a monocomparator or a stereo-comparator.
Current
professional
practice
favors
stereocomparators, which re-duce point reoccupation and xparallax errors, and which output x,y and x,y values
(4 channels of data) simultaneously.
Since both analog and analytical instruments can

only accommo-date conjugate images as stereo
pairs, multi-fold points are rarely measured in this
environments.
Instead, photogrammetrists rely on the cross-marks to
provide
the required
geometry.
7/30/16
09:24:15 AM
Aero-Triangulation
(2A), SHM
105
Comparator (1)
Mann type 422-F
leadscrew monocomparator
A sketch of a stereo-comparator
(x,y)
(x,y; x,y)
Mono-comparators make
measure-ments on one
photograph at a time.
7/30/16 09:24:15 AM
Stereo-comparators make
measure-ments on two
photographs at a time
106
Comparator (2)
The term comparators connotes a device to measure 2D point positions on a
hardcopy image placed on a
measuring stage.
The stereo-comparator
per-mits the measurement
of two diapositives
simultaneously while
viewing in stereo.
The advantage : not all of
the points used in the
triangulation need to be
marked on every photograph.
7/30/16 09:24:15 AM
This saves time and reduces

the opportunities for errors in
the stereo point marking
operation, which are not
easily correctable.
Applications : for discrete

po-int data collection
(image co-ordinates) for
block adjustment or aerotriangulation,
camera calibration, or
analytical photogrammetry.
Accuracy :
2 - 3 m (1 m least count).
107
Analog and Analytical Stereo-plotter

Basic principles of
mechanical projection
Schematic diagram of components and

operation of an analytical plotter
(x,y,z)
(x,y; x,y), (x,y,z)
Both analog and analytical instruments can

accommodate conju-gate images as stereo pairs.
7/30/16 09:24:16 AM
only
108
Coordinates Measurement in a
Softcopy Work-station
Coordinate
measurements
for
control
points,
tie
points
and
single
points.
In
softcopy
photogrammetric
instrument coordinate
mea-surements mostly
are
done
stereoscopically.
(x,y), (x,y; x,y), (x,y,z)
Stereoscopic
vision
7/30/16 09:24:16 AM
(2A), SHM
for
any po-int inAero-Triangulation
the
109
The New Digital Aerial Triangulation

Process (1)
A digital photogrammetry work station is essentially a
comparator with an unlimited number of stages, both
along the photo line (N-stage), and across the lines (M-lines),
making it easy to measure multi-fold point image
combination.
The virtual stage is unlimited in size and quantity, if the
computers memory (RAM) is large enough, the entire flight line or
even the entire photo block- can be kept on-line.
This digital system-based MN-Stage Comparator not only fully

supports the photogrammetric theories in AT, but more
importantly, it performs the following sub-processes
simultaneously :
(1) point selection and coding,
(2) point marking and cross-marking,
(3) control and image point mensuration.
7/30/16 09:24:16 AM
110
Softcopy
Photogrammetri
c
Workstations
Zeiss PHODIS ST
7/30/16 09:24:16 AM
Leica DPW 770
111
The New Digital Aerial Triangulation

Process (2)
During the AT process, the digital system drives to the
von Gruber locations for any two selected overlapping
images, regardless of overlap conditions (forward, lateral,
or diagonal).
The operator accept or offsets that location, clears x/y parallax
locally, occupies the point location with the cursor and digitizes
the point.
Meanwhile, the digital system

(1).assigns unique point ID,
(2). creates the digital marks or cross-marks, and
(3).logs the point photo coordinates against the pre-defined
point ID system.
To make the process even more foolproof, the digital system

provides a schematic diagram for each photo, which shows
an index of the measured points. (AT index map)
7/30/16 09:24:16 AM
112
(1/4 skala foto)
Contoh
Peta Indeks AT
Berbasis Foto/Berkas
7/30/16 09:24:16 AM
113
Block Adjustment
Block adjustment is essentially the automated
process of adjust-ing :
the logged photo coordinates (x,y) of the image points
[or model coordinates (x,y,z) of the model points] ,
survey control coordinates (X,Y,Z), and
any other relevant data
to obtain a best-mean-fit.
This adjustment is made necessary by the

differential residual data errors incurred in
surveying, marking, cross-marking, and measuring.
(sources of error in AT)
This process is purely data processing, and
does not require photogrammetric instrumentation.
7/30/16 09:24:17 AM
114
Result Analysis
7/30/16 09:24:17 AM
115
Result Analysis
A block adjustment is never perfect. Several
runs are needed.
If the adjustment residual errors exceed the
tolerance (indicat-ing a blunder or error in the AT
process),
a great deal of imagination is required to visualize the
source of the problem from the error values, which only
describe the deformation in numerical terms.
After analyzing the errors, the Photogrammetrist

will often
revisit the point marking or mensuration process for
both control and tie points, and then
discard or statistically weight certain points, and
re-process the data to obtain a better adjustment.
7/30/16 09:24:17 AM
116
Result Analysis
Interactive Error Correction
The digital system makes this process easy since
the massive measurement redundancy for
every multi-fold point (especially line tie points)
provide
an
unprecedented
strength
in
geometry.
Should blunders occur, the digital system can easily
and exactly recreate the conditions under which
the measurement was re-corded.
Whether the error is a cross-marking error,
excessive local paral-lax or point occupation error,
the Operator can correct it and re-digitize the
point.
A new adjustment can then verify the success of
the correction.
7/30/16 09:24:17 AM
117
Given the speed of modern computers and the
Forming Stereo Models

Automatically
Modern bundle adjustment programs also directly output
mo-del parameters, including :
control and image point ground coordinates (X,Y,Z),

residual errors in the original measurements and adjustment, and
the all-important bundle parameters XL , YL , ZL , (6 per
photo) which define the location and attitude of each aerial
photograph.
With these parameters, any overlapping image pair can be

use to form a stereo model automatically, without
interior or exteri-or orientations. (Space intersection problem)
The operator can also detach a preceding bundle and attach
a succeeding bundle while traversing trough a block.
This capability removes the need (and the unavoidable
errors) in repetitively occupying the fiducial, control or
model points.
It is also facilitates corridor-type mapping.
7/30/16 09:24:18 AM
118
Strip Formation
Strip Deformation after Strip Formation Process
The Schuts Polynomial Adjustment Methods
Performace of Polynomial Adjustment
POLYNOMIAL STRIP AND

BLOCK ADJUSTMENT
7/30/16 09:24:18 AM
119
Sequential Strip
Formation
in Analog Instrument
(Multiplex)
7/30/16 09:24:18 AM
120
Sequential
Construction of a
Strip Model from
Independent
Models
(a).Three adjacent relatively
oriented Formation)
stereo-models.
(Strip
(b).Individual
arbitrary
(horizontal)
co-ordinate
systems of three adjacent
stereo-models.
(c).Continuous
strip
of
stereo-models formed by
numerically
joining
the
individual
arbitrary
coordinate sys-tems into one
system.
7/30/16 09:24:18 AM
Aero-Triangulation
(2A),strip
SHM
The
coordinate system 121
Sequential
Construction of
a Strip Model
from
Independent
Models
(Strip
(strip coord.
system)
Formation)
7/30/16 09:24:18 AM
122
Strip Deformation
after Strip
Formation Process
During the process of tying
each successive model in the
strip to the one before it,
systematic errors in the
image
coordinates
accumulate to warp the
strip.
Those deformations are
corrected by polynomial
adjustment method-s.
7/30/16 09:24:18 AM
One set of equations is

solved for the planimetric (X,
Y) coordinates, while another
Aero-Triangulationmodels
(2A), SHM
123
the
Z
trans-
The Schuts Polynomial Adjustment

Methods (1)
Developed at the National Research Council of Canada, uses :
conformal polynomials for the planimetric adjustment, and
a separate polynomial for the vertical adjustment.
x x a1 a3x a4y a5( x2 y2 ) 2a6xy a7( x3 3xy2 ) a8(3x2y y3 ) ...

y y a2 a4x a3y a6( x2 y2 ) 2a5xy a7(3x2y y3 ) a8( x3 3x2y) ...
z z b0 2b2x 2b1y c1x2 c2x3 c3x4 d1xy d2x2y d3x3y d4x4y e1y2 e2xy2
(8 parameters/strip for planimetric adjustment, and

12 parameters/strip for vertical adjustment)
The coefficients of the polynomials are computed

after first scal-ing and translating (no rotation) the
strip coordinates into the world coordinate system.
7/30/16 09:24:18 AM
124
The Schuts Polynomial Adjustment

Methods (2)
S tr ip 1
S tr ip 2
S t r ip 3
T itik k o n tr o l ta n a h
S E B E LU M P E R ATA A N
Polynomial Adjustment
T it ik ik a t ( t ie p o in t )
S E S U D A H P E R A TA A N
If a block adjustment
is to be performed,
each
strip
is
adjusted sequentially,
using
a-djusted
tie
points
from
the
previous strip, until the
a-djustments between
strips
become
negligible.
S tr ip 1
S tr ip 2
S tr ip 3
7/30/16 09:24:19 AM
Once the adjustment is

com-pleted,
the
adjusted
world
coordinates of the
Aero-Triangulation (2A),
SHM
125
tie
points
are
Performance of Polynomial
Adjustment
Polynomial
adjustment
is
computationally
economical, since only the polynomial coefficients
must be computed.
This method was therefore well suited to the limited
computational power available in the early 1960s.
However, its accuracy is low since the image

geometry is not directly modeled and only gross
effects can be corrected.
Polynomial adjustment is no longer used in
practice, other than occasionally to generate tie
point coordinate approximations for a bundle
adjustment,
since the cost of the computational power required for a
7/30/16
09:24:19
AM
Aero-Triangulation
(2A), SHM
126
more
accu-rate
bundle
adjustment
is much less than that
Introduction
Principles of IMT
The Perspective Centers as Tie Points
Independent Model Triangulation M-7
Independent Model Triangulation M-43
BLOCK ADJUSTMENT BY
INDEPENDENT MODELS
7/30/16 09:24:19 AM
127
Introduction
Instead of grouping the models into strips, we can
adjust each model independently as part of an
overall block adjustment.
This also reduces the number of parameters in
the adjustment (seven per model, as opposed to
six per image for bundle adjust-ment),
but gives much better results than polynomial
adjustment methods.
The models can be formed on :

standard analog stereo-plotters, or from
comparator / digital image measurements, followed by
analytical relative orientation methods.
7/30/16 09:24:19 AM
128
Principles of
IMT
Independent Model Coordinates
Relative Connection of Adjacent Models

The
perspective
centers as tie
points.
Independent
Model
Triangulation (IMT) can be
thought of as the simultaneous
absolute orientation of all
the models in the block.
If we have two horizontal and
three ver-tical control points in
a model, we can relate model
coordinates
to
world
coordinates using the 3-D similarity
transfor-mation.
In IMT, instead of control points

in each model, we have a block
of models con-nected by tie
Absolute Connection to the Ground
points (including the perspective centers), which among
7/30/16 09:24:19 AM
129
them contain at least two
Tie
points.
M-7, M-43
M-4
7/30/16 09:24:19 AM
130
The Perspective Centers as Tie

Points (1)
Inclusion of the perspective centers as tie points is

critical for the geometric strength of the solution.
In standard block configurations, stereo-models overlap
only at the very edge regions, the tie points would be
nearly collinear, allowing the connected models to
rotate around the overlap region rotation)
Adding the perspective center as a tie point reinforces

the connection by preventing this rotation.
7/30/16 09:24:19 AM
131
The Perspective Centers as Tie

Points (2)
If an analog stereo-plotter is used to form the models

manually, the coordinates of the perspective center must be
measured while the model is set in the instrument.
Two-point method
of
determining model
coordinates of
perspective
centers of stereoplotter
projectors.
Grid plate method

of
determining model
coordinates of
perspective
centers of stereoplotter
projectors.
If analytical methods are used, the perspective center

coordinates are determined as part of the solution (analytical
relative orientation).
7/30/16 09:24:19 AM
132
Independent Model
Triangulation M-7
7/30/16 09:24:20 AM
133
Principles of IMT M-7

To implement IMT M-7, we write equations of 3-D
similarity trans-formation X = sMTx + T for each time
a control or tie point appears in a model, with the
absolute orientation parameters for that mo-del
as unknowns.
The model and world coordinates of the points are
treated as ob-servations, with the standard
deviations differentiating between known and
unknown coordinates.
The total number of unknowns for the least
squares solution is then seven per model and three
per tie point.
We can solve the total system of equations and
7/30/16
09:24:20absolute
AM
Aero-Triangulation (2A), parameters
SHM
134
obtain
ori-entation
for each
3-D Similarity Transformation

Equations
X
m11 m21 m31 x TX

X sM(T , , ) x T Y s m12 m22 m32 y TY
Z
m13 m23 m33 z TZ
where
X: thevectorof knownworldcoordinate
s,
s : theuniform
scalefactor,
M(T , , ) : therotation
matrixfrommodelcoordinate
s totheworldcoordinate
system,
x: thevectorofmodelcoordinate
s, m = - sin sin sin + cos
22
: the
translatio
cos
m11 = Tcos
cos nvector.
m23 = cos sin sin + sin
m12 = sin sin cos + cos
cos
sin
m31 = sin
m13 = - cos sin cos + sin
m32 = - sin cos
sin
m33 = cos cos
m21 = - cos sin
7/30/16 09:24:20 AM
135
Linearized
3-D Similarity Transformation
Equations
0 z0 y0 1 0 0
x0
y
z
0
x
0
1
0
0
0
0
z0 y0 x0
0 0 0 1
The equations for

ground control point
for a point are :
7/30/16 09:24:20 AM
1 0 0 X X0 vX0

Y Y v
0
1
0

0 Y0
TX 0 0 1 Z Z0 vZ
0
TY
T
Z
1 0 0 X X vX
0 1 0 Y Y v
Y
0 0 1 Z Z vZ
136
Jenis Titik dalam

IMT
1.Titik Kontrol Tanah / TKT

sebagai besaran stokastik. Contoh,
koordinat tanah titik A.
2.Titik Model / TM (stokastik) :
pass & tie points yg berada
pada
mini-mal
dua
model.
Contoh, koordinat model titik 6,
7, 8, dst..
TKT pada model / TKM.
Contoh, koordi-nat model titik A,
B, C, dst.
3.Titik Pusat Proyeksi / TPP
(stokastik), yg berada pada dua
model. Contoh, koordinat model
titik O2 , O3 , O6 , dst.
Peta Indeks AT
Berbasis Model
4.Titik Tunggal / TT (single

points), pass & tie points dan TPP
7/30/16
09:24:20 AM pada
yg berada
satuAero-Triangulation
model. (2A), SHM
137
Persamaan Pengamatan & Matriks

Kovariansi (1)
,Yi ,Zi )Xi ,Yi ,Zi
1.Titik Kontrol Tanah( X
/ i TKT
.(stokastik)
1.1.Persamaan pengamatan :
X
vX
1 0 0 X
0 1 0 Y Y v ;

Y

0 0 1 Z i Z i vZ i
dengan
i nomortitik.
1.2.Matriks kovariansi :
X2
ii XY
0
3 persamaan untuk TKTPenuh XYZ.

2 persamaan untuk TKTHorizontal XY.
(2 persamaan awal)
1 persamaan untuk TKTVertikal Z .
terakhir).
(1 0persamaan
XY
2
Y
0
Z2
Matriks kovariansi yang berbeda untuk setiap TKT dapat dilakukan.

7/30/16 09:24:20 AM
138

Kovariansi (2)
2.Titik Model (xij , yij , zij).(stokastik)
x0
y
0
z0
0
z0
y0
X0
z0 y0 1 0 0
1 0 0 X

0 x0 0 1 0 pj 0 1 0 Y Y0
0 0 1 Z i Z0
x0
0 0 0 1 ij
dengan
pTj s
vX0
vY0 ;
vZ
0 ij
ij
TX TY TZ j ,danj nomormodel.
2.2.Matriks kovariansi : (pada skala medan)
X20 X0Y0 0
2
( ij)(ij ) X0Y0 Y0
0
2
0
0
Z0
7/30/16 09:24:20 AM
ij
139

Kovariansi (3)
PC
( xijPC ,yijPC ,z(x
3.Titik Pusat Proyeksi
ij )ij , yij , zij)
.(stokastik)
0 z0 y0 1 0 0
x0
y
z
0
x
0
1
0
0
0
0
z0 y0 x0
0 0 0 1
dengan
pTj s
TX TY TZ j ,danj nomormodel.
ij
1 0 0 X
pj 0 1 0 Y
0 0 1 Z
PC
PC
PC
X0

Y0
Z0

ij
vX0
vY0
vZ
0
PC
;
ij
7/30/16 09:24:20 AM
PC
( ij )(ij )
2
X0
X0Y0
0
X0Y0 0
2
Y0
0
0 Z20
PC
ij
140
Contoh
Perataan
Titik
Tunggal
: IMT M-7 (1)
1, 2, 4, 5, 16, 17, 19, 20
O1 , O4 , O5 , O8
Tidak digunakan dalam
perataan.
7/30/16 09:24:21 AM
Anu :
Parameter : 6 model @ 7
par. = 42
Koordinat tanah pusat
proyeksi (O2 , O3 , O6 , O7) : 4
x 3 = 12
Koordinat tanah titik model
(3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15, 18, A, B, C, D, E, F) :
18 x 3 = 54
Jumlah
Aero-Triangulation
(2A), SHM anu : u141
= 42 + 12 +
pengamatan :
Titik kontrol tanah (A, B, C, D, E, F) : 6 x
Contoh
3 = 18 Perataan IMT M-7 (2)
Model 1-2 (3, 6, 7, 8, A, B, O2) : 7 x 3 =
21
Model 2-3 (6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, O2, O3) : 8
x 3 = 24
Model 3-4 (11, 12, 13, 18, D, E, O3) : 7 x
3 = 21
Model 5-6 (3, 8, 9, 10, B, C, O6) : 7 x 3 =
21
Model 6-7 (8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, O6 ,O7) =
8 x 3 = 24
Model 7-8 (13, 14, 15, 18, E, F, O7) = 7 x
3 = 21
Jumlah persamaan : n = 18 + 4 x 21 +
2 x 24 = 150
Redundansi : r = n u = 150
108 = 42
7/30/16 09:24:21 AM
Persamaan pengamatan
Aero-Triangulationtotal
(2A), SHM :
142
Contoh Perataan IMT M-7 (3)

Anu :
Parameter : 4 model @ 7 par. = 28
Koordinat tanah pusat proyeksi : 2 x 3
=6
Koordinat tanah titik model : 9 x 3 =
27
Jumlah anu : u = 28 + 6 + 27 = 61
Persamaan
pengamatan :
Redundansi : r = n u = 72 61 = 11
Persamaan pengamatan total :
A(72x61)X(61x1) = F(72x1) + v(72x1) ; (72x72)
7/30/16 09:24:21 AM
Titik kontrol tanah : 4 x 3 = 12

Model 01 : 5 x 3 = 15
Model 02 : 5 x 3 = 15
Model 03 : 5 x 3 = 15
Model 04 : 5 x 3 = 15
Jumlah persamaan : n = 12 +
15 + 15 + 15 +15 = 72
143
Strategi Pemecahan Anu dalam

Software AT
Dalam praktik, software AT umumnya tidak
memecahkan anu parameter dan koordinat secara
simultan.
Solusi dilakukan secara bertahap, yaitu :
Tahap I : Pemecahan anu parameter dari
persamaan normal yang direduksi dalam (RNE)
parameter.
Tahap II : Pemecahan anu koordinat dengan
transformasi koordinat, kemudian hasilnya dirataratakan.
Solusi ini akan sangat menghemat memori,
storage, dan waktu.
7/30/16 09:24:22 AM
144
Inter-relation Frequency
Table
For the direct generation of the RNE, it is very

essential to know the type of each point : control
tie point single point.
In order to generate the main- and off-diagonal
submatrices it is essential to know :
the frequency of each tie point, also
the inter-relation between the models.
The Table is also used in Preparation of sequence of

models for adjustment purposes (automatic
bandwidth minimization)
7/30/16 09:24:22 AM
145
Example of Inter-relation
Frequency Table
Pt.
Pt.
No.
Typ
e
Models in which it
appears
O1
PC
1-2
O2
PC
1-2 2-3
TP
1-2 2-3
TP
1-2 2-3 5-6 6-7
SP
1-2
SP
1-2
HV 1-2
HV 1-2 5-6
7/30/16 09:24:22 AM
146
Structure of
RNE Coefficient
Matrix
In blocks of
strips
with
sidelap,
the
ficient matrix
RNE
is
banded.
parallel
20
%
coefof the
usually
Computation time :
(M-7)
tA ~ b2.n ~ 492.105 ~
252105
tB
~ 352.105
~ 128625
tA 2 tB
In order to reduce
memory
requirements and to
reduce
the
computation
time
the numbering of the
models
(for
7/30/16 09:24:22 AM
adjustment
purposes)
147
Blok Diagram IMT M-7 (1)

INPUT :
1.Photogra
mmetric
Data:
a.ModelNumber : Mdl.No.
b.Projecti
onCenters
: Pt.No., x,y,z ; xPC , yPC , zPC
c.ModelCoordinate
s: Pt.No., x,y,z ; x , y , z
2.Ground
Control
Data:
a.FullControl
Initial approximation values for

unknown parame-ters of 3-D
similarity transformation (7 per
model)

Updating
modelcoordinate
s: x sMT x T
(allpoints)
: Pt.No.,X,Y ,Z ; X , Y , Z
b.Horizont
alControl
: Pt.No.,X,Y
c.Vertical
Control : Pt.No.,
; X , Y
Z;
3.Number
ofIteration
: Max
Preparation of Inter-relation
Frequency Table :
1.Point Number
2.Type (PC, TP, SP, HO, VE, HV)
3.Locations (in which models)
4.Frequency f (in how many
models)
Preparation of sequence of models
for adjustment purposes (automatic
bandwidth minimization)
7/30/16 09:24:22 AM
Generate RNE in unknown

parameters : Np = t
(Use : tie points, model control
points, GCPs)
(Exclude : single points)
Solve RNE 7 parameters per model
:
(s, , , , TX , TY , TZ )
a
148

a
Improvemen
t of approximat
e values
:
s s(1 s);MT MTMT ;T T T

Updating
modelcoordinate
s: x sMT x T
(allpoints)
N
o
(next iteration)
Iter =
Max
Ye
s
Compute :
1.Mean coordinates (X, Y, Z) of
tie points.
PCs.
3.Relative discrepancies at tie
points & PCs,
(vX , vY , vZ).
4.Absolute discrepancies at
control points.OUTPUT :
5.X 1.Adjusted
, Y , ZCoordinate
, 0. s(X, Y, Z
)
(minorcontrolpoints).
2.Relative
andabsolute
discrepanc
ies.
3.Standard
Deviation
X ,Y ,Z .
7/30/16 09:24:22 AM
11/12/2010149
11/19/2010
Catatan tentang IMT M-7 (1)
M-7 ini tidak dipakai secara meluas, karena dalam praktek

orang lebih suka memilih versi M-43 yang melakukan iterasi
bertahap
perataan
horizontal
dan
vertikal,
yang
mengaplikasikan 4 dan 3 parameter transformasi secara bergilir.
Pilihan ini dilakukan karena ekonomi komputasi
Waktu komputasi sekitar tiga kali lebih cepat.
t(M-7) ~ (7l)2.
(7n)
~ 73.l2n =
343 l2n
7/30/16 09:24:23 AM
t(M-43) ~ {(4l)2.
(4n) +
(3l)2.
(3n)}
150
3
3
2
~ (4 +3 ).l n =
Catatan tentang IMT M-7 (2)

Harga
pendekatan
parameter :
awal
untuk
anu
Anu yang paling kritis adalah sj , j , j , j.

Umumnya j dan j = 0, sedangkan skala sj dan j
dapat memiliki harga yang besar.
Salah satu kekurangan utama M-7 adalah perlunya
memiliki harga pendekatan awal yang baik agar solusi
kuadrat terkecil mungkin dila-kukan
7/30/16 09:24:23 AM
151
Independent Model
Triangulation M-43
7/30/16 09:24:23 AM
152
Principles of IMT M-43 (1)

One of the most successful was the implementation
in PAT-M-43, developed at the University of
Stuttgart (Prof.Dr.Ackermann).
This divided the seven-parameter absolute
orientation into two separate solutions,
a four-parameter planimetric adjustment (M-4), and
a three-parameter height adjustment (M-3).
The planimetric adjustment (M-4) incorporated

the scale factor, the rotation around the Z-axis,
and the X- and Y-translations.
The height adjustment (M-3) incorporated the
two leveling rotations, and , and the Z7/30/16
09:24:23 AM
153
translation.
M-4
Model Connection (7
parameters)
Principles of
IMT M-43 (2)
7/30/16 09:24:23 AM
M-3
154
Principles of IMT M-43 (3)

These two adjustments are not independent,
since
the planimetric adjustment assumes that the
model is level, and
the height adjustment assumes that the points are
properly positioned planimetrically.
The two adjustments must therefore be repeated

alternately (43-43-43- ) until the corrections to
the point coordinates are negligible.
Since the conditions are usually close to being
met at the start of the procedure and the
solution is nearly linear, only a few iterations
are typically required.
7/30/16 09:24:24 AM
155
Prosedur Hitungan IMT M-43

1.
2.
3.
4.
Data Input
Organisasi / Administrasi Data
Perataan M-4
Penyekalaan Analitis (Analytical
Scaling)
5. Perataan M-3
6. Penegakan Analitis (Analitycal
Levelling)
7. Pengolahan Hasil Akhir
7/30/16 09:24:24 AM
156
Persamaan Pengamatan IMT M4 (1)

( Xi/,YTKT
1.Titik Kontrol Tanah
Xi ,Yi
i)
.(stokastik)
X
vX
1 0 X
0 1 Y Y v ; i nomortitik.
i i Y i
ho
ii
X2
XY
XY
Y2
Matriks kovariansi yang berbeda untuk setiap

TKT dapat dila-kukan.
7/30/16 09:24:24 AM
157

a

x y 1 0 b
1 0 X
0 vX
y x 0 1 T
0 1 Y
0 v ; j nomormodel
ij X
i Y ij

TY j
(ho
ij )(ij )
7/30/16 09:24:24 AM
X2 XY

Y
XY
ij
158

Persamaan IMT M-4 adalah linier dalam anuanunya :
Tidak perlu linierisasi
Tidak perlu harga pendekatan awal
Jika model telah ditegakkan sebelumnya sampai
tingkat yang mencukupi, perataan horizontal dapat
diaplikasikan sendiri (tanpa perataan vertikal),
Tidak memerlukan iterasi.
7/30/16 09:24:24 AM
159
Pusat Proyeksi pada IMT M-4

Pusat proyeksi dr model tdk disertakan dlm
perataan horizon-tal, karena pengaruhnya yg
mengganggu ketelitian planimetrik.
Residu-x dan y
pada
pusat
proyeksi dapat sangat
besar
dan
sangat
berbeda
dibandingkan
dengan residu pada
titik model karena
perbeda-an dan
dari model-model
yang
bersebelah Resiko dari asumsi perataan M-4
(the model is
an.
level)
7/30/16 09:24:24 AM
160
Tidak Digunakan dalam

Perataan :
Titik Tunggal : 1, 2, 4, 5, 16,
17, 19, 20
Pusat Proyeksi : O1 s/d O8.
Anu :
par. = 24
(3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15, 18, A, B, C, D, E, F) :
18 x 2 = 36
Jumlah anu : u = 24 + 36 =
60
7/30/16 09:24:24 AM
161
Persamaan
Contoh
Perataan IMT
M-4 (2)
pengamatan
:
Titik kontrol tanah (A, B, C, D, E, F) : 6 x
2 = 12
Model 1-2 (3, 6, 7, 8, A, B) : 6 x 2 = 12
Model 2-3 (6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13) : 6 x 2 =
12
Model 3-4 (11, 12, 13, 18, D, E) : 6 x 2 =
12
Model 5-6 (3, 8, 9, 10, B, C) : 6 x 2 = 12
Model 6-7 (8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15) = 6 x 2
= 12
Model 7-8 (13, 14, 15, 18, E, F) = 6 x 2
= 12
Jumlah persamaan : n = 7 x 12 = 84
60 = 24
total :
7/30/16 09:24:24 AM
A
X
= F162
(84x1) + v(84x1) ,
dengan matriks kovariansi
Aero-Triangulation (84x60)
(2A), SHM(60x1)

Anu :
Koordinat tanah titik model : 9 x 2
= 18
Jumlah anu : u = 16 + 18 = 34
Persamaan
pengamatan :
Redundansi : r = n u = 40 34 = 6
A(40x34)X(34x1) = F(40x1) + v(40x1) ; (40x40)
7/30/16 09:24:25 AM

Model 01 : 4 x 2 = 8
Model 02 : 4 x 2 = 8
Model 03 : 4 x 2 = 8
Model 04 : 4 x 2 = 8
Jumlah persamaan : n = 5 x
8 = 40
163

Anu :
0
1
0
3
0
2
0
4

Koordinat tanah titik model : 9 x 2
= 18
Jumlah anu : u = 16 + 18 = 34
Persamaan
pengamatan :
A(40x34)X(34x1) = F(40x1) + v(40x1) ; (40x40)
7/30/16 09:24:25 AM

Model 01 : 4 x 2 = 8
Model 02 : 4 x 2 = 8
Model 03 : 4 x 2 = 8
Model 04 : 4 x 2 = 8
Jumlah persamaan : n = 5 x
8 = 40
164
Penyekalaan Analitis
Setelah
perataan
horizontal,
4
parameter
transformasi per model (a, b, TX , TY)j didapat.
Seluruh titik dalam setiap model ditransformasi
dengan mengguna-kan persamaan 3-dimensi sbb. :
x
a b
y b a

z ij 0 0
x
TX
0 y TY
a2 b2 j z ij 0
0
Perhatikan
bahwa
tinggi
juga
dikoreksi dengan skala.
Ini sangat penting untuk menghindari
defor-masi model.
Koreksi yang paling signifikan
untuk skala ada-lah pada pusat
proyeksi.
7/30/16 09:24:26 AM
165
Perataan tinggi dimulai dengan menggunakan koordinat

xij , yij , zij yang didapat dari perataan horizontal.
1.Titik Kontrol Tanah /(TKT
Zi ) Zi
.(stokastik)
1 Z i Z i vZ i ; i nomortitik.
iive Z2 i
Matriks kovariansi yang berbeda untuk setiap

TKT dapat dila-kukan.
7/30/16 09:24:26 AM
166


y x 1 ij Z i z ij vZ ij ; j nomormodel
TZ j

2
(ve
z ij
ij )(ij )
7/30/16 09:24:26 AM
167
PC
( xijPC ,yijPC ,z(x
3.Titik Pusat Proyeksi
ij )ij , yij , zij)
.(stokastik)
0 z 0
z
0
0
y x 1
PC
ij

TZ
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
j
X
Y

Z
PC
x
y
z
PC
ij
vx
v y
v z
PC
; j nomor model.
ij
Pusat proyeksi sangat penting

untuk penentuan .
2
x
(PC
ij )(ij )
xy
0
7/30/16 09:24:26 AM
xy 0
y2 0
0 z2
PC
ij
Untuk membedakan antara

titik ikat (model) dengan
pu-sat
proyeksi,
pusat
proyeksi diberi nomor/angka
kode yg khusus dan/atau
ditempatkan sebagai dua titik
pertama da-lam setiap daftar
koordinat model.
168
Contoh
Perataan
Titik
Tunggal
: IMT M-3 (1)
TM : 1, 2, 4, 5, 16, 17, 19, 20
PC : O1 , O4 , O5 , O8
Tidak digunakan dalam
perataan.
7/30/16 09:24:27 AM
Anu :
par. = 18
Koordinat tanah pusat
proyeksi (O2 , O3 , O6 , O7) : 4
x 3 = 12
(3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15, 18, A, B, C, D, E, F) :
18 x 1 = 18
Jumlah
Aero-Triangulation
(2A), SHM anu : u169
= 18 + 12 +
Persamaan
pengamatan :
Contoh
Titik kontrol
tanah (A, B,IMT
C, D, M-3
E, F) : (2)
6x
Perataan
1=6
Model 1-2 (3, 6, 7, 8, A, B, O2) : 6 x1 +
1x3=9
Model 2-3 (6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, O2, O3) : 6
x 1 + 2 x 3 = 12
Model 3-4 (11, 12, 13, 18, D, E, O3) : 6

x1 + 1 x 3 = 9
Model 5-6 (3, 8, 9, 10, B, C, O6) : 6 x 1 +

1x3=9
Model 6-7 (8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, O6 ,O7) : 6
x 1 + 2 x 3 = 12
Model 7-8 (13, 14, 15, 18, E, F, O7) : 6

x1+1x3=9
Jumlah persamaan : n = 6 + 4 x 9 + 2 x
12 = 66
48 = 18
7/30/16 09:24:27 AM
total :
170
A
=F
+v

Anu :
=6
9
Jumlah anu : u = 12 + 6 + 9 = 27
Persamaan
pengamatan :
A(32x27)X(27x1) = F(32x1) + v(32x1) ; (32x32)
7/30/16 09:24:27 AM

Model 01 : 4 x 1 + 1 x 3 = 7
Model 02 : 4 x 1 + 1 x 3 = 7
Model 03 : 4 x 1 + 1 x 3 = 7
Model 04 : 4 x 1 + 1 x 3 = 7
Jumlah persamaan : n = 4 + 4 x
7 = 32
171

0
1
0
2
Anu :
0
3

=6
9
Jumlah anu : u = 12 + 6 + 9 = 27
Persamaan
pengamatan :
0
4
A(32x27)X(27x1) = F(32x1) + v(32x1) ; (32x32)
7/30/16 09:24:28 AM

Model 01 : 4 x 1 + 1 x 3 = 7
Model 02 : 4 x 1 + 1 x 3 = 7
Model 03 : 4 x 1 + 1 x 3 = 7
Model 04 : 4 x 1 + 1 x 3 = 7
Jumlah persamaan : n = 4 + 4 x
7 = 32
172
Penegakkan Analitis (1)

Setelah pembentukan dan pemecahan persamaan
normal yang direduksi (RNE) untuk tinggi, akan
didapat 3 parameter per mo-del, yaitu j , j , TZj .
Dengan menggunakan j dan j , suatu matriks
rotasi 3-dimen-si M,T dibentuk untuk setiap
model.
Seluruh titik dalam setiap model ditransformasi
cos
0
sin
xdengan
x
0
x sbb.
0
meng-gunakan
transformasi
3-dimensi
y M T y 0 sin sin
y 0
cos
sin
cos
:
, j

ij
7/30/16 09:24:28 AM
ij
TZ
cos sin
sin
cos cos j z
173
ij
TZ
Penegakkan Analitis (2)

Transformasi ini akan mengoreksi koordinat-x dan
y, karena itu disebut juga sebagai koreksi
topografik karena dan .
Koordinat hasil transformasi digunakan untuk iterasi

berikutnya (M-4).
7/30/16 09:24:28 AM
174
Iterasi M-43
Perataan M-43 selalu dimulai dengan perataan horizontal
M-4, karena
Urutan perataan M-4 dan M-3
konvergensi yang diinginkan tercapai.
diulangi
sampai
Umumnya tiga kali iterasi (43-43-43) diperlukan
Contoh : peningkatan perbaikan residu X, Y, Z dalam

suatu blok yang terdiri dari 200 model dengan skala foto 1 :
28.000.
Iterasi
1 (M-43)
Residu
Maks.
M-4
Xmaks (m)
31
856
Ymaks (m)
18
031
7/30/16 09:24:28 AM
Zmaks (m)
2 (M-43)
3 (M-43)
M-4
M-3
M-4
M-3
142
15,00
1,99
0,017
0,005
210
16,43
2,34
0,023
0,002
M-3
5 120
4,83
4,02
175
0,016
0,006
Pengolahan Hasil Akhir

Selanjutnya harga akhir untuk anu koordinat
medan dihitung dengan merata-ratakan koordinat
titik yang sekawan hasil trans-formasi yang berada
di beberapa model.
Dihitung pula residu pada :
titik model dan pusat proyeksi (residu relatif), dan
titik kontrol (residu absolut);
beserta simpangan bakunya :

X , Y , ho = (X2 + Y2)
Z
7/30/16 09:24:29 AM
176

INPUT :
1.Photogra
mmetric
Data:
a.ModelNumber : Mdl.No.
b.Projecti
onCenters
: Pt.No., x,y,z ; xPC , yPC , zPC
c.ModelCoordinate
s: Pt.No., x,y,z ; x , y , z
2.Ground
Control
Data:
a.FullControl
: Pt.No.,X,Y ,Z ; X , Y , Z
b.Horizont
alControl
: Pt.No.,X,Y
c.Vertical
Control : Pt.No.,
; X , Y
Z;
3.Number
ofIteration
: Max
Preparation of
sequence of models
for adjustment
purposes (automatic
bandwidth
minimization)
Store control in two lists :

1.Horizontal Control : Pt.No., X , Y , X , Y
2.Vertical Control : Pt.No., Z , Z
7/30/16 09:24:29 AM
Preparation of
Inter-relation
Frequency Table
(Point Number,
Type, Locations,
Frequency )
Data Organization
/ Administration
a
177

a
Generate RNE-(X, Y) : Nhopho =
tho
(Use : model points, Ho-CPs)
(Exclude : single points,
projection centers)
Solve RNE-(X, Y) 4 parameters
per model :
(a, b, TX , TY )
Transform each model
using0 : x T
x
a b
y b

z
0
a
0
X
y T
0
Y
2
2
(a b z 0
Generate RNE-(Z) : Nvepve = tve

(Use : model points, PCs, VeCPs)
(Exclude : single points)
Solve RNE-(Z) 3 parameters
per model :
(, , TZ)
Construct orthogonal
matrix M,T.
Transform
each model
x 0 using
x
y M :T y 0
,

z
z TZ
M-4
7/30/16 09:24:29 AM
M-3
178

a
N
o
(next iteration)
b
Iter =
Max
Ye
s
Compute :
tie points.
PCs.
3.Relative discrepancies at tie
points & PCs,
(vX , vY , vZ).
4.Absolute discrepancies at
control points.
5.X , Y , Z , 0.
OUTPUT :
1.Adjusted
Coordinate
s(X, Y, Z
)
(minorcontrolpoints).
2.Relative
andabsolute
discrepanc
ies.
3.Standard
Deviation
X ,Y ,Z .
7/30/16 09:24:29 AM
179
Principles of Bundle Block Adjustment

Initial Approximations for the Bundle Block Adjustment
Persamaan Pengamatan Perataan Blok Berkas
Contoh Perataan Blok Berkas
BUNDLE BLOCK
ADJUSTMENT
7/30/16 09:24:29 AM
180

Adjustment (1)
Bundle block adjustment is the most accurate and
flexible method of aerotriangulation.
The accuracy levels attainable in AT allow its use for
geodetic control extension.
In close-range applications, precision of 1 : 500,000 of
the largest dimension of the measured object.
Numerous extensions of the basic method have

increased both flexibility and accuracy. (e.g.,PATB)
The addition of self-calibration parameters corrects for
remaining systematic errors and increases the overall
accuracy of the adjustment. (e.g., PATB-SC)
High-quality navigational data from GPS receivers can be
rigorously included to reduce control requirements
dramatically. (e.g., PATB-GPS)
7/30/16 09:24:29 AM
181

Adjustment (2)
Bundle block adjustment is based on the collinearity equations :
For the least squares adjustment, the collinearity

equations are linearized in the form
Bp(ij) p(j) + Bc(ij) c(i) = fij + vij
The unknowns are the six exterior orientation
parameters of the i-mage (the elements of p(j) ) and
the three object space coordinates of the point
(elements of c(i) ).
The observations are the image coordinates
measurements, with residual vij.
7/30/16 09:24:29 AM
182

Adjustment (3)
Bundle adjustment is most often implemented using
unified least squares, which allows the assignment
of realistic standard deviations to each points
object space coordinates (ground control as
observations).
Since bundle block adjustment involves more
unknowns than other triangulation methods,
efficient algorithms for forming, storing, and solving
the normal equations are particularly important.
7/30/16 09:24:30 AM
183
Initial Approximations for the

Ground Coordinates
and Gross Errors Data Cleaning (1)
The first step is to perform analytical
orientation for each stereopair in the block.
relative
The photo coordinate residuals should be inspected as an

initial check on the measurements.
Next, the relatively oriented models are connected to form

strips.
The model coordinate residuals from this step can also
provide a quality check on the photo coordinate
measurements and point identification.
Each strip is individually adjusted to ground control

points located within each strip.
The ground coordinate residuals from this step provide a check
on the ground control coordinates as well as point
identification.
7/30/16 09:24:30 AM
184
Initial Approximations for the GroundCheck on

Image
Coordinates
the
s
and Gross Errors Data Cleaning (2)Measureme
(Phot
nts
os)
and Point
Data
Acquisition
(Mensuratio
n)
Strip
Coord.
System
Image
Coord.
System
Inner
Orientation &
Image
Refinement
Photo
Coord.
System
Relative
Orientati
on
7/30/16 09:24:30 AM
Strip
Formati
on
Yes
No
OK
?
Check on
the
Measureme
nts
Model
Coord.
System
GCP
Coordina
tes
Identificatio
n
No
Approxi
mate
Ground
Coordina
tes
Yes
OK
?
Yes
Strip
Adjustm
ent
No
Check on
the
Identificatio
n
of Tie Points
between
Strips
Ground
Coord.
System
Check on
the
GCP
Coordinates
and Point
Identificatio
n
OK
?
No
Yes
OK
?
No
185

Ground Coordinates
and Gross Errors Data Cleaning (3)
An additional check can be performed to validate
the identification of tie points between strips.
If the identification of tie points is consistent, their
coordinates as determined in adjacent strips should
agree within a small tolerance.
The resulting ground coordinates can be used as
initial
approximations
for
the
bundle
adjustments.
7/30/16 09:24:30 AM
186

Exterior Orientation
Parameters
Approximations for the exterior orientation parameters can
be obtained directly from the strip adjustment if the
adjustment is performed using 3-D similarity
coordinate transformation.
Perspective centers, their object space coordinates (XL ,
YL , ZL) will be available after the final adjustment to
ground control.
Assuming vertical photography, zeros can be used as
approximations for and .
Approximations for can be obtained directly from the
final 3-D similarity coordinate transformation to ground
control, which contains a compatible angle.
7/30/16 09:24:30 AM
187
Persamaan Pengamatan Perataan

Blok Berkas (1)
,Yi ,Zi )Xi ,Yi ,Zi
1.Titik Kontrol Tanah( X
/ i TKT
.(stokastik)
3 persamaan untuk TKT X X 0
vX
dX
Penuh XYZ.
dY Y Y 0 v ;
2 persamaan untuk TKT vZ

dZ i Z Z 0
i
i
Horizontal XY.
(2 persamaan awal)
dengan i nomor titik.
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1.2.Matriks kovariansi
1 persamaan untuk TKT: (pada skala

tanah)
Vertikal Z .
terakhir).
2 (1 0persamaan
ii XY
0
XY
2
Y
0
Z2
Matriks kovariansi yang berbeda untuk setiap TKT dapat dilakukan.

7/30/16 09:24:30 AM
188

Blok Berkas (2)
2.Titik Citra (xij , yij).(stokastik)
b14
b24
b15
b25
b16
b14
j
b
b26 ij
24
pTj d d d
dX L
dYL
b11 b12
b
21 b22
b13
b23
b15
b25
dX
b16
J
dY
K
b26 ij
dZ i
ij
vx
;
vy
ij
dZ L j ; dengan j nomor foto.
2.2.Matriks kovariansi : (pada skala foto)
( ij )( ij )
x2 xy
2
xy y
ij
ge coordinate covariance matrix showing 2 x 2 diagonal structure.

7/30/16 09:24:31 AM
189

Blok Berkas (3)
3. Persamaan pengamatan total :
BP
0
BC P f v (persamaan untuk titik citra)

'
BC C f ' v ' (persamaan untuk TKT)
Matriks kovariansi total :
( ij )( ij )
0
7/30/16 09:24:31 AM
kovariansi untuk titik citra)

0 (matriks
kovariansi untuk TKT)

ii(matriks
190
Contoh Perataan Blok

Berkas (1)
(a) Block of two strips with

four photos per strip in
overlapped position.
7/30/16 09:24:31 AM
Anu :
Parameter : 8
foto @ 6
parameter = 48
(p)
Koordinat tanah
pass & tie points
(1 s/d 20) : 20 x 3
= 60
Koordinat tanah
titik kontrol foto
(A s/d F) : 6 x 3 =
18
191
Jumlah anu : u =
Contoh Perataan Blok

Berkas (2)
(b) Separated photos

showing image
points.
Persamaan
pengamatan :
Titik kontrol tanah (A
s/d F) : 6 x 3 = 18
Foto-1 : 8 x 2 = 16
Foto-2 : 11 x 2 = 22
Foto-3 : 11 x 2 = 22
Foto-4 : 8 x 2 = 16
Foto-5 : 8 x 2 = 16
Foto-6 : 11 x 2 = 22
Foto-7 : 11 x 2 = 22
Foto-8 : 8 x 2 = 16
Jumlah persamaan pengamatan : n = 18 + (4 x 16) + (4 x

22) = 170
Redundansi : r = n u = 170 126 = 44
Persamaan pengamatan : B(170x126) (126x1) = f(170x1) +

7/30/16 09:24:31
AM
v
(170x1) ; (170x170)
192
To be continued to
Chapter 2B
Aero-Triangulation
(AT)


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Materi kuliah GD4103 Fotogrametri II, Semester II2012/2013

KK Inderaja & Sains Informasi Geografis

Contents (Chapter 2A)

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Contents (Chapter 2B)

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Materi kuliah GD4103 Fotogrametri II, Semester II2012/2013

KK Inderaja & Sains Informasi Geografis

Contents (Chapter 2A)

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Asal-usul istilah Aero-Triangulasi :

1. Proses penentuan koordinat tanah (X,Y,Z) titik-titik di

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

AT is located in the critical

It is often called bridging,

Control Points for Photo

The minimum number

The practical minimum number

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Absolute Orientation M-43

Stereo-model that is not level

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

AT versus Ground Surveying

over field surveying,

aero-triangulation has other benefits :

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aplikasi Aero-Triangulasi (1)

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aplikasi Aero-Triangulasi (2)

by computing X, Y, and Z ground coordinates of a systematic

control networks in area surrounded by tall buildings where

the relative positions of large machine parts during

deformasi bangun rekayasa, mis. jembatan,

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

strips, models, or images coordinate;

In digital system, the basic unit is usually bundle.

ground control coordinates with specific

Process : (see Stages of Aerial Triangulation

coordinates of minor control points (tie

(Analog, Analitis, Dijital)

(Analog, Analitis, Dijital)

(Analog, Analitis, Dijital)

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Bundle Block Adjustment

2. Sebanyak mungkin lakukan hitungan secara dijital /

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

Jeries Analog Computer

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM

The Development of Block

The development of block triangulation has been driven by the

Aero-Triangulation (2A), SHM