INSTRUMENTATION

What is Instrumentation ?
Division of engineering science which deals with
measuring techniques, devices and their associated
problems
Multi disciplinary course
Basics lies with :
Physics,
Thermo-fluid mechanics and
Electrical-electronic principles

Importance of Instrumentation
Engineers carry out Experiments
Need to measure physical quantities such as Displacement,
Temperature, Pressure, Level, Flow, Stress, Strain, Velocity,
Acceleration, Vibration, Humidity, Force, Torque and Power
Process Control at plants, Quality, Data acquisition systems

Where do we use Instruments ?

Instruments to control flight of the
satellite
To control temperature at home
and preserve food in refrigerators
Automobiles
Oil extraction Industry, pumping
Material manufacturing Industry

Any man made product involves measurement at some

stage of its manufacture.
Measuring the concerned variables is the first requirement
for controlling
Measure to monitor/manage/control
Vehicle-speed, distance, fuel, temp
Instrumentation is a branch of engineering science that
deals with techniques used for measurement, the
measuring devices used and the problems that are
associated with the techniques used for measurement.
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Measurement & Instrument

For measurement-an instrument
Measurement means getting to know about physical
quantities such as length, weight, temperature, pressure, force
and so on.
Measurement is the outcome of an opinion formed by
observers about some physical quantity. The observer
forms this opinion by comparing the object with a quantity of
similar kind called standard.
Measurement is a process of comparing the input
signal(unknown magnitude) with a pre-defined standard and
giving out the result.
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Why do we measure ?
Measurement provides us with a means of describing a
natural phenomena in quantitative terms.
As a fundamental principle of science, Lord Kelvin stated:
When you can measure what you are speaking and
express about and express them in numbers, you know
something about it and when you cannot measure it or
where you cannot express in numbers, your knowledge is
of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind. It may be the
beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your
thought advanced to the stage of science.
The reliability of control is directly related to the reliability of
measurement.
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MEASUREMENT

Standard
(Known quantity)

Measurand
(I/P signal-unknown
magnitude)

Comparison
Process

Result
(Numerical
value)

The obtained result is to be meaningful, for which the

following two conditions are to be satisfied.
1.The standard being used for comparison should have
common acceptability
2.The procedure and apparatus that is used for getting the
comparison should be provable

General concepts in measurement

1.Measurement methods
2.Generalised measurement system and its elements
3.Three stages of generalized measurement system

1.Measurement Methods
Measurement is the process of comparing the physical
quantity with a reference standard.
Methods:

1.Direct and Indirect measurement

2. Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary measurement
3. Contact and Non-Contact Type measurements

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1.Direct comparison: Measurand(unknown) is directly compared with

the standard. The result of measurement is a number and a unit. This is
used for measuring physical quantities such as time, mass, length etc.
Easy to do but.less accurate
Ex. Length of wire
When the unknown quantity(measurand) is very small, the human being
cant make direct comparison with accuracy and precision.
Indirect comparison method: These have a transducer element, which
convert the quantity to be measured from one form to another form
without changing the information content.
Here the input signal is converted to some other form and then it is
compared with the standard.
Ex. To measure force from strain gages
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strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible

backing which supports a metallic foil pattern.
The gauge is attached to the object by a
suitable adhesive.
As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed,
causing its electrical resistance to change.
This resistance change, usually measured
using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the
strain by the quantity known as the
gauge factor.

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Direct and Indirect Measurements

Direct Measurement

Indirect Measurement

Physical quantities are By indirect comparison with

secondary standards through
measured
by
direct
calibration
comparisons like mass,
length and time.
Measuring variable is converted
into
an
analogue
signal,
Less sensitive and less
processed and fed to result
accurate
displaying device
Not feasible

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2.Methods of measurement

Measurement methods contd..

-Primary

measurement
-Secondary measurement
-Tertiary measurement
Primary measurement:
Made by direct observation.
Only subjective information.
They dont involve any translation of information.
Require senses of sight and touch.
Examples:
One vessel is cooler than the other
One rod is longer than the other
Compare masses
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Secondary measurement: Indirect measurements involving one

translation is called secondary measurements.

Conversion of Pressure into displacement by Bellows

Conversion of Force into displacement by means of springs
Pressure measurement by manometer
Temperature measurement by Mercury-in-glass thermometers
Pressure/
Force
Input

Primary
signal

Translation

Length
Secondary
signal

Output
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Bellows

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Secondary measurement Contd..

1. Primary Signal (Pressure or Temp) length change by Transducer

(Secondary signal)
2. Secondary signal Observers eye

3. Observed Length change Equivalent Pressure/Temp

(Calibration process)

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Tertiary measurement:
The o/p result is obtained by 2 translations
Ex: Electric tachometer.
Input is converted into voltage(first translation).
This voltage is converted into length(second translation)

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Tertiary measurement Contd..

Measuring speed of rotating shaft by means of Electric Tacho meter

1. Angular speed of the rotating shaft Electric Voltage

2. Voltage length change
3. Length change observer

Electric Tachometer

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Measurement of pressure by Bourdon pressure gauge

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21

Bourdon tube pressure gages are extensively used for local indication.
This type of pressure gages were first developed by E. Bourdon in 1849.
Bourdon tube pressure gages can be used to measure over a wide range
of pressure: from vacuum to pressure as high as few thousand psi.
It is basically consisted of a C-shaped hollow tube, whose one end is
fixed and connected to the pressure tapping, the other end free, as
shown in fig. The cross section of the tube is elliptical.
When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube tries to acquire a circular
cross section; as a result, stress is developed and the tube tries to
straighten up.
Thus the free end of the tube moves up, depending on magnitude of
pressure.
A deflecting and indicating mechanism is attached to the free end that
rotates the pointer.
The materials used are commonly Phosphor Bronze, Brass and Beryllium
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Copper.

3.Contact & Non-Contact Type Measurement

Contact type:
sensing element of the device is in contact with medium
for which the characteristics are measured

Non-contact Type:
sensor does not communicate with medium
(optical, radio active, electronic measurements)

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2.Generalised measurement system & its elements

Input Signal
(Measurand)

Measurement System

Output signal
(Measurement)

Functions of an instrument are:

1.Get information
2.Process the information
3.Present the information to a human observer

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Measured
Medium
1.Primary sensing element
2.Variable conversion element
3.Variable manipulation element

5.Data processing element

6.Data presentation element
Presented data

7.Data StoragePlayback element

4.Data transmission element

Observer

Generalised measurement system & its elements

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1. Primary Sensing Element

First element of a measurement system
Takes energy from the measured medium and it produces an
output depending on the measured quantity(measurand)
Instrument takes energy from the measured medium and
due to this the measured quantity is always disturbed by the
act of measurement.
So, a perfect measurement is theoretically impossible. This
effect is called loading.
The instrument has to be designed to minimize this loading
effect.
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2.Variable conversion/ Transducer element

The primary sensing element gives an output which is some
physical variable like displacement or voltage
Transducer element converts the signal from one physical
form to another without changing the information content of
the signal
The output of the transducer element is in the form, which is
more suitable for measurement.
Example

Transducer
Input

Output

Bourdon tube

Pressure

Displacement

Rack & Pinion

Linear motion

Rotary motion

Thermocouples

Temp. difference

emf

Venturimeter

Flow

Pressure

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3.Variable Manipulation Element

This manipulates its input to get a magnified output.
The input signal is amplified to get the output.
Both the input and output signal are of the same form
[ Input ] X constant = Output
Ex: odometer of an automobile
[ revln] X [km/revln] = km

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4.Data Transmission Element

This element transfers the signal from one place to another
without disturbing the signal being transmitted.

Ex:

From shaft to gear Short distance

From test center to
computer
Medium distance
From ground
equipment to
Long distance
missiles(telemetry)

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5. Data Processing Element

Element that modifies(alters) the data before it is finally
displayed or recorded
To convert the data to an understandable and useful form
May or may not present
Used for :
Perform Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division of
the physical variables and constants
Convert the data into useful form
It can provide compensation for change in temperature
It removes unwanted disturbances such as noises, which
come with the signal
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6.Data Presentation Element

The information about the measured quantity is to be
presented to a human being for monitoring, control or
analysis purpose
The information about the measured quantity has to be put
in a form that is understandable to a human being.
An element that performs this translation function is called
Data presentation element
Ex:
Pointer moving over a scale
Recording of a pen moving over a chart
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7.Data Storage and playback Element

This element stores the data or information and presents the
same when commanded.
Ex: Magnetic tape recorder-reproducer, Computer

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Generalized measurement System

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Primary Sensing Element

Variable conversion/Transducer Element
Variable Manipulation Element
Data Transmission Element
Data Processing Element
Data Presentation Element
Data Storage and play back element

Note: The elements of the measuring system may appear in

any number and combination and it need not appear as
shown in the diagram of generalized measurement system.
Moreover, a single element can perform several functions.
All of these elements may not appear in one single instrument
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3.Three stages of Generalized Measurement System contd..

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common elements of generalized measurement system

in three stages:
Elements

Stages

1.Primary sensing element

2.Variable conversion or
transducer element

Detector-Transducer
stage/Input stage

3.Variable manipulation element

4.Data transmission element
5.Data processing element

Intermediate
modifying stage

6.Data presentation element

7.Data storage and playback
element

Terminating stage

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Data Logger
Device for signal conditioning
/ processing
Acquisition/ conversion.
Loggers output is suitable to
operate printer/magnetic
tape/Micro controller based
memory along with DAS
They generally are small,
battery powered, portable,
and equipped with a
microprocessor, internal
memory for data storage, and
sensors.
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Case Study I

Mercury Glass Thermometer

Transducer
Temp Information

Volume Information
Mercury
Signal Conditioning

Vol Change

Volume Information
Capillary
Tube
Display

Length Change
Scales

Position of Mercury
Miniscus
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Case Study II

Dial Indicator

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Case Study III

Pressure Thermometer
Primary sensing
element

bulb

Transducer
element

Bulb
(temp-pressure)

Data
transmission
element

tubing

Transducer
element

Bourdons tube
(pressure- motion)

Manipulation
element

Link, sector pinion

Data presentation Scale, pointer

element
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40

Measurement Systems
Basic Elements

Accessory Elements

1. detector- transducer

1. Calibration Equipment

2. Signal conditioning

2. External Power Source

3. Data Presentation

3. Feedback element to control

system ( any variation of
physical qty)

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Classification of Measuring Instruments

Automatic
Temp . Measurement in

Manual Instruments
Resistance thermometer

Mercury Glass Thermometer

Self Generating

Power Operated

Bourdon Gauge

Photo Electric Transducer

Self Contained

Remote Indicated

Deflection

Null output measurement

Null Balance
Analog

Platform Scale
Digital
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Input-Output Configuration of
Measuring Instruments - 1
Instrument performs an operation on an input
quantity (Measurand - i) to provide an output called
as measurement (o).
Performance of an instrument can be stated in terms
of an operational transfer function G.
Input (i)

Output (o)

O=G.
i
Input-Output Relation of a measuring system
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Input-Output Configuration of
Measuring Instruments - 2
Various inputs to a measurement system can be classified
into three categories :
1. Desired Input : Qty that is intended to be measured
by an Instrument
2. Interfering Input : A qty to which an instrument is
unintentionally sensitive
3. Modifying Input : A quantity that modifies the inputoutput relationship for both the desired and interfering
inputs.
The output of measuring apparatus is the instantaneous algebraic sum of
the output component due to the above three inputs.
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Case :

Input-Output Configuration of
Measuring Instruments - 3
Case :

1) If manometer is placed on
wheels which is subjected to
acceleration, output is
generated though there is no
pressure difference .

1) If manometer is tilted and

not properly aligned with the
direction of gravitational
force, an output is generated
even though there is no
pressure difference.

The acceleration constitutes

Interfering input.

The angular tilt constitutes

Interfering input.

P2

P1

h1

h1-h2 = h

Grav. Force is modifying input

h2
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Fig . Differential manometer

Standards

Metre
Kilogram
Second
Kelvin
Ampere
Candela
Mole
Radian
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Standards
Primary standards :
- Higher stds of base or derived unit
- Highly expensive to own, available only in
National Laboratories
- Have highest possible accuracy

47

Standards
Secondary Standards :
- Referenced calibrated stds
- sent periodically to National Laboratories
- Ex: to check and calibrate general tools
and are kept in industries

48

Standards
Working Standards :
- Normal stds used by technicians and
workers who are actually carrying out the
experimentation
- Accuracy of any measuring instrument is
tracable ultimately to the primary
standards

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Calibration
Magnitude of the error and consequently the correction to be
applied is determined by making a periodic comparison of the
instrument with the standards that are known to be constant
The procedure for making, adjusting or checking a scale so
that readings of an instrument or measurement system
confirm to an accepted standard is called calibration
Ex: A flow meter may be calibrated by comparing with std flow
measurement facility at NBS/ compare with another flow meter
/ direct comparison with a primary measurement by weighing
certain amt of water in a tank and record.

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Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems

Range
The range is defined as the difference between the nominal values of
the measured quantities corresponding to the terminal scale marks. This
is normally expressed in the form A to B where A is the minimum scale
value and B the maximum scale value.

Span represents the algebraic difference between the upper and lower
range values of the instrument
Range: - 10 C to 100 C;

Span: 110 C

Range: 1 bar to 100 bar;

Span: 99 bar

Range: 0 volts to 440 volts;

Span: 440 volts

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Accuracy, error, and correction

Accuracy = the closeness of a measured value
to the actual value being measured
The difference between measured value (Vm) and the true value
(Vt) of the quantity represents a static or absolute error of
measurement.
error ,E= Vm Vt

Precision
The ability of an instrument to repeat an output when
measuring a given quantity under identical conditions
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Fig. Accuracy and precision explained through a familiar example

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Repeatability
Repeatability is used for expressing the precision of an instrument.
BS 5233 defines repeatability as follows:
the ability of a measuring instrument to give identical indications,
or responses, for repeated applications of the same value of the
measured quantity under the same conditions of use.
The quantitative definition of repeatability may be defined as:
the half range random uncertainty of a typical measurement under
specific conditions of use and at a defined level of confidence.
Repeatability (R) is then numerically equal to the half range
random uncertainty (Ur) of the measurement.
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Linearity

Output

Output

Output

Most instruments are specified to function over a particular

range and the instruments can be said to be linear when
incremental changes in the input and output are constant over
the specified range.

Input

Input

Input

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Sensitivity
This is the relationship between a change in the output reading
for a given change of the input. (This relationship may be linear
or non-linear.)
Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or instrument
magnification and an instrument with a large sensitivity (scale
factor) will indicate a large movement of the indicator for a
small input change.
Sensitivity =

Change in output of the instrument

Change in input signal

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57

Output, Vo (V)

Force, F

Slope = 5 V/kN

Output, Vo

Load Cell

Input, Fi (kN)

Block Diagram:
Input, F (kN)
K

Output, Vo (V)

Sensitivity, K = 5 V/kN
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Drift
Zero drift is variation in the output of an instrument which
is not caused by any change in the input; it is commonly
caused by internal temperature changes and component
instability.
Sensitivity drift defines the amount by which instruments
sensitivity varies as ambient conditions change.

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Output

Output

sensitivity
drift

zero
drift
input
Output

input
sensitivity
drift

zero
drift

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input

Zero stability
This is a measure of the ability of the instrument to return to
zero reading after the measurand has returned to zero and other
variations such as temperature, pressure, vibration, etc. have
been removed.

61

Threshold
If the instrument input is very gradually increased from
zero there will be a minimum value required to give a
detectable output change. This minimum value defines the
threshold of the instrument.

Output

input
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Resolution
This is defined as the smallest input increment change that gives
some small but definite numerical change in the output.

63

Readability
This is defined as the ease with which readings may be taken
with an instrument. Readability difficulties may often occur
due to parallax errors when an observer is noting the position
of a pointer on a calibrated scale.

64

Hysteresis
This is the algebraic difference between the average errors at
corresponding points of measurement when approached from
opposite directions, i.e. increasing as opposed to decreasing values
of the input.
Measured
Value

Ideal

Actual/ Input
Value

Hysteresis is
caused by
energy
storage/
dissipation in
the system.
65

Dead Zone
This is the range of different input values over which there is
no change in output value. This is produced by friction,
backlash or hysteresis in the instrument.

66

Dynamic Characteristics

Introduction

When Instruments are required to measure inputs

that change with time, dynamic/transient behaviour of
the instrument becomes important.
Mass, capacitances ( thermal/ Electrical/Fluid)
introduce sluggishness into the system
This accounts in a delay in response when the
instrument has to wait for some reactions to take
place.
System does not settle to equilibrium immediately
after the application of input signal till the transient
period is last.

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Dynamic Characteristics

Speed of response/ Measure Lag

Dynamic Error
Overshoot
Dead time and dead zone
Frequency Response

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Dynamic Characteristics

Speed of response
The rapidity with which an instrument responds to a
change in the value of the quantity being measured.

Measuring lag
The most important factor in the performance of a
measuring system is that the full effect of an input signal
(i.e. change in measured quantity) is not immediately
shown at the output but is almost inevitably subject to
some lag or delay in response. This is a delay between
cause and effect due to the natural inertia of the system
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and is known as measurement lag.

Fidelity
The degree of closeness with which the system indicates
or records the signal which is impressed upon it.
It refers to the ability of the system to reproduce the output
in the same form as the input.
For 100% fidelity,
Input---- sine wave;

output-----sine wave

Dynamic error
The difference between the indicated quantity and the true
value of the time varying quantity is the dynamic error.70

Overshoot
Because of the mass and inertia a moving part, i.e the pointer
of the instruments does not immediately come to rest in final
deflection position.
The maximum amount by which the pointer moves beyond the
steady state.

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Example
When a step input of 100 bar is applied to
a pressure gauge, the pointer swings to a
pressure of 102.5 Bar and finally comes to
rest at 101.3 bar. Determine the overshoot
of the gauge reading and express it as a
percentage of the final reading. Also
calculate the percentage error of the
gauge.
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Example - Solution
Overshoot = 102.5 101.3 = 1.2 bar
Percentage
Overshoot =

1.2
X 100 = 1.18%
101.3

Percentage Error

101.3-100

101.3

X 100
= 1.28%
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Dead time
The time required for an instrument to begin to respond to
a change in the measured quantity.
It represents the time before the instrument begins to
respond after the measured quantity has been altered.

Dead zone
The largest change of the measurand to which the
instrument does not respond. This is produced by friction,
backlash or hysteresis in the instrument.
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Dynamic Terms
75

Frequency response
Maximum frequency of the measured variable that an instrument
is capable of following without error.

76

Standard test-inputs
The dynamic performance of both measuring and control
systems is determined by applying some known and
predetermined input signals to its primary sensing
element and then study the behaviour of the output signal.
Most common inputs used for dynamic analysis are :

Step input
Ramp input
Sinusoidal input

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Standard test-inputs Step Function

Which is a sudden change from one steady
value to another. The step input is
mathematically represented as

i = 0 at t < 0;
i = 0 at t > 0;
where 0 is a constant value of the
input signal i

The capacity of the system to cope up with

changes in the input signal is indicated by
the transient response

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Standard test-inputs Ramp or Linear Function

Input variable varies linearly with

time.

i = 0 at t < 0;
i = t at t > 0;
where

is the slope of the input

vs time relationship

79

Standard test-inputs Sinusoidal Function

Where input has a cyclic variation.

Input varies sinusoidally with a
constant maximum amplitude.
i = A sin t ;
A is amplitude
is frequency in rad/sec

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Thank You

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