Ecosystem

The term ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley (1953). Ecosystem is

defined as a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and microorganisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the
non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.
An ecosystem is a self regulating group of biotic communities of species
interacting with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging
energy and matter.
The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel (1869). The term ecology is
derived from Greek words Oikos (home) and Logos( study). So it deals with
the study of organism in their natural home interacting with their environment.
The Ecology is also defined as study of the structure and functions of an
ecosystem.
The ecosystem can be Natural such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and
aquatic ecosystems such as ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea and human
modified such as agricultural fields and aquarium.

Structure and function of ecosystem:

1) Structural features of Ecosystem: Composition and organization of
biological communities and abiotic components constitute the structure of an
ecosystem.
(A)Biotic component: The plant, animal and microorganism present in an
ecosystem forms the biotic component. They are divided based on the way
they get their food
1) Producers: They generate food by their own. They can be Photo
autotrophs(mainly green plants) which produces organic matter in
presence of sun light through photosynthesis and chemoautotrophs(produce organic matter through chemical reaction) such as
sulphur oxidizing or reducing bacteria, nitrifiers , methanogens.
2) Consumers: They get their food by feeding upon either plants or other
organisms. They can by divided into
a) Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers for their food
and also known as primary consumers. Ex- rabbit, insects, man.

b) Carnivores ( meat eaters) : They feed on consumers and can be called

secondary consumers ( if feeds on herbivores . Example: frog) or tertiary

consumers( feeds upon secondary consumers, example: snake, big fish).
c) Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. Example: Humans, rat,

many birds.
3) Decomposers or Saprotrophs: They derive their nutrition by breaking

down the dead organic material to simpler organic compounds and

ultimately into inorganic nutreints. Examples: Bacteria, fungi and
actinomycetes are decomposer. Decomposition is a vital function in nature
as without this all the nutrient would be tied up in dead matter and no new
life will be produced.
Most ecosystem are highly complex and consist of an
extremely large number of individuals of a wide variety of species. Some
species of plant and animals are extremely rare and may occur only at a
few locations. These are said to be endemic to these area.

Biotic component of an ecosystem

B) Abiotic component: It include air, water, soil and can be divided into:
1) Climatic component: include, sunlight and shade, average temperature,

rainfall, wind pattern, humidity of a particular area. Most of the climatic

parameters occurs in the lower atmosphere known as troposphere.

2) Edaphic component: Soil is the major source of mineral nutrients for plants

and other organisms. Soil fertility is determined by nutrient availability, the

water holding capacity and aeration of the soil.
Soil profile: It is the sequence and nature of the horizons (layers)
superimposed one above the other and exposed in a pit section dug through
the soil mantle. In a longitudinal section of soil, three distinct layers (A, B
and C horizons) can be seen. Sometime we also observe O layers which is
present above the surface of mineral matrix and mainly composed of fresh or
partially decomposed organic matter.
The uppermost A : horizon is the most important one in which seeds are
grown and from which plants derive nutrition. These are rich in organic matter
and show downward loss of soluble salts, clay, iron and know as zone of
eluviations.
B- horizon : it contains less organic matter and is hence less fertile as
compared to horizon A. The chemical leached from A horizon , collects in this
zone. Also know as zone of illuviations.
C horizon : which is a mineral layer made of incompletely weathered large
masses of rocks.

A horizon: Organic matter, roots,

worms, insects, small rock
and mineral fragments. Dark in
color.
B horizon: Some roots and
other living organisms, materials
leached by water from the A
horizon, clay, rock fragments,
minerals. Lighter in color than
topsoil.
C horizon: Weathered parent rock
materials leached by water
from the B horizon, partly weathered
rock fragments. yellowish color.

So overall abiotic component can be divided into:

1) Physical factors: It include climatic, edaphic, geographical factor such as
latitude and altitude, Soil type, water availability, water current etc. The
variation in these physical parameter decide the type of ecosystem
characteristics. The solar flux, temperature and precipitation pattern shows
mark difference in a desert ecosystem, tropical or tundra ecosystem.
2) Chemical factors: Availability of major essential nutrient such as carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorous, level of toxic substances, salts affects the
functioning of an ecosystem.
Function attributes of an ecosystem: The major functional attributes of an
ecosystems are as follows:
a) Food chain, food webs and trophic structure
b) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
c) Primary and secondary production
d) Ecosystem development and regulation

b) Energy flow

Food chains: The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is

known as food chain. All organism, living or dead are potential source of food
for some other organism and thus there is essentially no waste in the
functioning of a natural ecosystem.
Example of food chain:
Grass
ecosystem)
Phytoplankton
Lichens

grasshopper
water fleas
reindeer

Frog

Snake
small fish

Hawk ( Grassland
Tuna ( Pond ecosystem)

Man ( Arctic tundra)

Each organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or trophic level

depending upon its nutritional status. So in grassland ecosystem grass
constitute the 1st trophic level, grasshopper 2nd, frog 3rd and snake and hawk
occupy the 4rd and the 5th trophic levels, respectively.
The decomposer consume the dead matter of all these trophic level.

In nature we come across two type of food chain in ecosystem:

1) Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants( primary producer) and
culminates in carnivores. Examples:
Grass

Rabbit

Phytoplankton

Fox

water fleas

small fish

Tuna ( Pond ecosystem)

2) Detritus food chain: It start with dead organic matter which the detritivores
and decomposer consumes. Partially decomposed dead organic matter
and even the decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their
predators. Example:
(Mangrove ecosystem)
Leaf litter

algae

Dead organic matter

crabs

small carnivorous fish

fungi

large carnivorous fish

Bacteria ( Forest ecosystem)

Food web: Food chain in ecosystem are rarely found to operate in isolated linear
sequence. Rather they are found to be interconnected and usually form a complex
network with several linkages and are known as food web. Food web is a network of
food chain where different types of organisms are connected at different trophic levels,
so that there are number of option of eating and being eaten at each trophic level.

Food webs give greater stability to the ecosystem, as if one species become extinct or
suffers then the species in the subsequent trophic level are also affected in food chain,
however in case of food web effect will be reduced due to presence of other food
options.

Significance of food chains and food webs:

1) Plays significant role in ecosystem as flow of energy and nutrient cycling take
place through food chain and food webs.
2) Food chain and food webs also help in the maintaining and regulating the
population size of different animals thus maintain the ecological balance.
3) Food chain shows a unique property of biological magnification of some
chemicals. Pesticides for examples DDT or other chemical which are nonbiodegradable in nature. Such chemicals are not decomposed or excrete out so their
concentration keep on increasing at each successive trophic level. This
phenomenon is know as biomagnification or biological magnification.

Trophic structure: The producer and consumer are arranged in the ecosystem in a
definite manner and their interaction along with population size are expressed together
as trophic structure. Each food level is known as trophic level and the amount of living
matter at each trophic level at a given time is known as standing crop or standing
biomass.

Ecological Pyramids: Ecological pyramids were first devised by British

ecologist Charles Elton(1927). Ecological pyramids is graphical representation
of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with producers at the
base and successive trophic level forming the apex is known as an ecological
pyramid. It is of three types:
1) Pyramid of numbers: It represent the number of individual organisms at

each trophic level. It may be upright or inverted pyramid of number depending

upon the type of ecosystem and food chain. Example:

Top carnivores
Hawks, other
birds
Frogs, birds
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers

Insects
Grasses

Grassland ecosystem ( upright)

Top carnivores
Lion, Tigers

Producers

Carnivores

Snakes, Foxes

Herbivores

Insects, birds
Tree

Forest ecosystem ( narrow on

both end and broader in the
middle

Hyper parasite
Parasite
Herbivores
Producer

Fleas, microbes
Lice, bugs
Birds
Trees

Parasitic food chain( Inverted)

2) Pyramid of Biomass: It is based upon the total biomass (dry weight) at

each trophic level in a food chain. It can be upright or inverted. Example:
Carnivores
Snake, frog, birds
Herbivores

Squirrel, rabbit, insect

Producer

Tree, herbs, grasses

Forest ecosystem

Tertiary Carnivores

Big fish

Carnivores

Small fish

Herbivores
producer

insect
phytoplankton

Pond ecosystem

3) Pyramid of energy: The amount of energy present at each trophic level is

considered for this type of pyramid. It is always upright, because there is

huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat and respiration at each
successive trophic level. Thus at each energy level only 10% of the energy
passes on.

0.1

Top carnivores

Carnivores(1)
Herbivores(10)
Producer(100)
Pyramid of energy

Flow of energy in an ecosystem: Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through

food chain and necessary for the sustenance of an ecosystem. In an ecosystem energy
flow is always unidirectional unlike nutrient which moves in a cyclic manner in an
ecosystem. The energy flow in an ecosystem follows the law of thermodynamics:
1st law of thermodynamics: energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can
be transformed from one form to another. In ecosystem green plant( producers)
transform solar energy to biochemical energy which then travels to other trophic
level.
2nd law of thermodynamics: energy dissipates as it is used or in other word it get
converted from a more concentrated to dispersed form. In case of food chain also
energy dissipate at every trophic level. The main loss of energy takes place through
heat and respiration. At every level there is about 90% loss of energy and the energy
transferred from one trophic level to another is only 10%.
Energy flow model: The flow of energy through various trophic level is given be energy
flow models. Some of them are as follows:
1) Universal energy flow model: It is given by E. P. Odum. It explain the flow of energy
through an ecosystem, where part of energy is assimilated for the production of biomass
and some part get loss due to heat or respiration.

2) Single channel energy flow model: It shows the flow of energy in

unidirectional manner through a single channel of green producers to

herbivores and carnivores. Example: single channel energy flow model for
grazing food chain is given below:

3) Double channel or Y- shaped energy flow model: Combination of

grazing and detritus food chain in nature.

Nutrient Cycling: Nutrient cycling is another functional aspect of ecosystem. Nutrient

like Carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphate moves in a circular path through biotic and
abiotic components and therefore known as biogeochemical cycle. The nutrient too
move through food chain and ultimately reach the detritus compartment( containing
dead organic matter) where various micro-organism carry out decomposition. In the
decomposition process dead organic matter converted into inorganic substances by
microbial decomposition which are again used up by plant.

carnivores

herbivores

Producer

Organic matter

Organic matter
Organic matter

Reuse

Inorganic substance
molecule
Inorganic

decomposer

Simplified nutrient cycle in ecosystem

Nitrogen cycle:

The main component of the nitrogen cycle starts with the element nitrogen in the
air.

Nitrogen in the air becomes a part of biological matter mostly through the actions
of bacteria and algae in a process known as nitrogen fixation. Legume plants
such as clover, alfalfa, and soybeans form nodules on the roots where nitrogen
fixing bacteria take nitrogen from the air and convert it into ammonium,
NH4. The ammonia is further converted by other bacteria first into nitrite ions,
NO2, and then into nitrate ions, NO3. Plants utilize the nitrate ions as a
nutrient or fertilizer for growth. Nitrogen is incorporate in many amino acids
which are further reacted to make proteins.

Ammonia is also made through a synthetic process called the Haber Process.
Ammonia may be directly applied to farm fields as fertilizer. Ammonia may be
further processed with oxygen to make nitric acid. The reaction of ammonia and
nitric acid produces ammonium nitrate which may then be used as a
fertilizer. Animal wastes when decomposed also return to the earth as
nitrates.

To complete the cycle other bacteria in the soil carry out a process known as
denitrification which converts nitrates back to nitrogen gas.

Carbon cycle:

All living things are made of carbon. Carbon is also a part of the ocean, air,
soil and even rocks.

In the atmosphere, carbon is present in form of a gas called carbon dioxide

and methane. Trace amount of carbon monoxide is also present.

Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food and grow.
The carbon becomes part of the plant and it moves further in other trophic
level through food chain.

Plants that die and are buried may turn into fossil fuels made of carbon like
coal and oil over millions of years. These fossil fuels are important source of
energy for human being.

When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon quickly enters the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide acts as green house gas so
its increase concentration in atmosphere results into increase earth surface
temperature a phenomenon known as global warming.

Ocean is most important sink of atmospheric CO2 followed by plant

biomass.

Oxygen Cycle:

The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of
oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the
biosphere (living things), and the lithosphere (Earth's crust).

By far the largest reservoir of Earths oxygen is within the silicate and oxide
minerals of the crust and mantle (99.5%). Only a small portion has been
released as free oxygen to the biosphere (0.01%) and atmosphere (0.36%).
The main source of atmospheric oxygen is photosynthesis, which produces
sugars and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water:
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy C6H12O6 + 6O2

An additional source of atmospheric oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby

high energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous
oxides into component atoms.
2H2O + energy 4H + O2
2N2O + energy 4N + O2

The main way oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and
decay, process in which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release
carbon dioxide. Chemical weathering of exposed rocks also consumes oxygen.
4FeO + O2 2Fe2O3

Primary Production: The rate at which radiant energy is converted into

organic substances by photosynthesis or chemo-synthesis by the primary
producer. It is also known as gross primary production (GPP).
Net Primary Production( NPP) : Some part of the organic matter produce
during photosynthesis get used during respiration process to produce energy
for the sustenance of the primary producer, so the amount of remaining
organic matter left is known as Net primary production (NPP).

GPP = NPP + R
Secondary Production: The plant energy is used up for producing organic
matter of the herbivores which, in turn is used up by carnivores. The amount of
energy stored by the herbivores or carnivores( in excess of respiratory loss)
is known as secondary production.
In other word we can say that energy stored at consumer level for use by
the next trophic level is known as secondary production.

Wet tropical forest and Estuarine ecosystem are highly productive ecosystem
and needed to conserve.

Ecosystem Regulation: All ecosystem regulate and maintain themselves

under a set of environmental condition. If there is any stress internal or
external applied to the ecosystem it tend to resist the change and maintain
itself in equilibrium with the environment due to a property known as
homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the inherent property of all living system to resist change.
However system can show this tolerance only within a maximum and a
minimum range, which is its range of tolerance known as homeostatic
plateau. Within this range we can have negative feed back mechanisms,
these mechanism are counter mechanism against external or internal stress
and try to bring the system back to its ideal condition.
However if the stress is too high and is beyond the region of homeostatic
plateau, then positive feedback mechanism start operating. Positive feed
back mechanism add to the stress condition and take the system away form
the ideal condition.
Example: Increase CO2 concentration results into increase plant fertility,
which in turn result into reduction of atmospheric CO 2.( Negative feed back
mechanism). Due to global warming Ocean temperature increases so
reducing the dissolve CO2 conc. So further increasing the risk of global
warming. (Positive feed back)

Ecological Succession: Ecosystems are dynamic in nature and often

changes its structure and function due to change in the physical
environment or change in the biotic composition. Some of these changes
are very orderly and can be predicted.
During this change process one type of a biotic community is totally replaced
by another type of community over a period of time and this transition
continue till a stabilized biotic community sets up. This transition process
is known as Ecological Succession.
Ecological succession is defined as an orderly process of changes in
community structure and function with time mediated through
modifications in the physical environment and ultimately culminating in
a stabilized ecosystem known as climax.
Type of succession:
1) Primary Succession: It start from the primitive substratum, where their
was no living matter present before. It is a slow process due to lack of any
build up substratum.

Secondary succession: It starts from previously built up substrata where their

was presence of living matter before. Due to external factor existing
community disappear . These processes are fast.
Succession can be autogenic (induced by community itself) or allogenic( due
to external factors).
Some Definitions:
1) Pioneer community: The first group of organism established in a particular
area is known as pioneer community.
2) Seral stages or sere: The whole sequence of communities which are
transitory between from Pioneer to climax community are known as Seral
stages.
3) Climax community: It is the stabilized community formed in the end of
succession process which is in equilibrium with the environment.

Ecological Succession type: Based on the substrata type :

1) Hydrarch or Hydrosere: It start in watery area like, pond, swamp,bog.
2) Mesarch: starting in the area of adequate moisture.
3) Xerarch or Xerosere: Starting in dry area with little moisture. It can be of
following type:
a) Lithosere: starting on a bare rock
b) Psammosere: starting on sand
c) Halosere: starting on saline soil.

Process of succession: Succession take place in a systematic order of

sequential steps:
1) Nudation: It is development of bare area without any life form. This
formation can be due to landslide, volcanic eruption (topographic factor), or
due to drought, glaciers ( climatic factor) or due to overgrazing, disease
outbreak ( biological factor).
2) Invasion: This is successful establishment of a species in a bare area. It
start with migration or dispersal process where seeds, spores reach the
bare area through air, water etc.
After migration successful establishment of the species( adjustment with
the prevailing condition) is know as ecesis.
After ecesis , number of species increase in number due to reproduction
and come closer to each other a process know as aggregation.
3) Competition and Coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is
competition, both inter-specific( between different species) and intraspecific ( within the same species) for space, food and water. Individuals of
species affects each other life in various ways and this is known as
coaction.

4) Reaction: once the number of species increases, they have a strong

influence on the physical environment. The mechanism of the modification of

the environment through the influence of living organism in it, is known as
reaction. Most of the changes occurs in soil, water, light condition etc.
5) Stabilization: It is the final stage of succession process, where more or less
stable community called climax formed which is in equilibrium with the
environment.
Example of Ecological Succession:
1) Hydrosere (Hydrarch): This type of succession start in a water bodies like

pond and culminates in a climax community which is forest. It has following

stages:
a) Phytoplankton stage: These are the pioneer community. Mainly blue
green algae, green algae, diatoms and bacteria etc.
b) Rooted submerged stage: Due to death and decomposition of
phytoplankton organic matter start accumulating on the pond subsurface.
This new environment is favorable for the growth of rooted submerged
hydrophytes like Hydrilla, Elodea etc.

Hydrosere: different stage of plant growth

3) Rooted submerged stage: Now the depth of lake reduces to 2-5 feet,
favoring the growth of rooted hydrophytes with their large leaves floating on the
water surface. Example: Nelumbo, Trapa, Azolla etc.
4) Reed-swamp stage: also known as amphibious stage as the plants of
community are rooted but most of it part is in air. Example: Scirpus, Sagittaria
etc.
5) Sedge-meadow stage: They form mat like vegetation, results into higher
loss of water through evapotranspiration process. The marsh like condition in
the previous stage is removed and area with soil moisture left. Example:
carex,cyperus etc.
6) Woodland stage: As the marsh land disappear soil become more dry and
give rise to vegetation like shrubs( Salix, cornus) and trees ( populus, Alnus).
7) Forest stage: This is climax community. It can developed as tropical rain
forest or mixed forest depending upon the climate of the region. Example:
Ulmus, Acer and Quercus.

2) Lithosere: A Xerosere on Rock: It start with bare rock and culminate into a
forest stage. Different stages of Lithosere are as follows:
a) Crustose lichen stage: The lichen are the pioneer community. The
substratum is very poor in moisture and organic matter, subjected with
extreme of temperature. Examples: Rhizocarpon, Rinodina etc.
b) Foliose lichens stage: They can absorb more water and retain more water
and are able to accumulate dust particle which further help in build up of
substratum. Examples: Parmelia, Dermatocapron.
c) Moss stage : Xerophytic mosses such as Tortula, Grimmia appears after
lichens stage.
d) Herbs stage: due to growth of mosses there is more accumulation of
soil.This stage is constituted by shallow rooted grasses such as
Aristida,Festuca etc which further replaced by shrubs.
e) Shrub stage: Species like Rhus, Phytocarpus start growing in the area,
which over compete the herbaceous species.

Crustose lichen
Foliose lichens

Moss

f) Forest stage: This is the climax community for this type of ecological
succession. Starting with Xerophytic tree species it changes into mesophytic
type and finally into forest type.

Major Ecosystem Type:

Forest Ecosystem

Forests are formed by a community of plants which is predominantly

structurally defined by its trees, shrubs, climbers and ground cover.

Natural vegetation looks vastly different from a group of planted trees, which
are in orderly rows. The most natural undisturbed forests are located
mainly in our National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Each forest type forms a habitat for a specific community of animals that
are adapted to live in it.
Forest ecosystem has two component:
a) abiotic aspects: Include soil type, rainfall pattern in the forest are, light
pattern, water amount, temperature condition.

b) biotic aspects: The plants and animals form communities that are specific
to each forest type.
Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses, and herbs in the forest.
Animal include the species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish,
insects and other invertebrates and a variety of microscopic animals.
Forest types in India
They can also be classified according to the nature of their tree species
evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic or thorn trees, mangroves, etc.
They can also be classified according to the most abundant species of trees
such as Sal or Teak forests.
In many cases a forest is named after the first three or four most abundant
tree species.

Coniferous forest:
grow in the Himalayan mountain region, where the temperatures are low.
These forests have tall trees with needlelike leaves and downward sloping
branches so that the snow can slip off the branches.
have cones instead of seeds
Trees- Pine, deodar
Animals- Wild goats and sheep, Snow leopard, Himalayan black bear,
Evergreen forests:
High rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, North Eastern India and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
There is no dry leafless phase as in a deciduous forest. An evergreen forest
looks green throughout the year. Thus very little light penetrates down to
forest floor. The forest abounds in animal life and is most rich in insect life.
Trees- Jamun, Ficus, Dipterocarpus
Animals- Tiger, Leopard, Sambar

Deciduous forests:

are found in regions with a moderate amount of seasonal

Rainfall. Teak tree is one of the dominant tree species in these type of
forest
The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the winter and hot
summer months. In March or April they regain their fresh leaves just before
the monsoon, when they grow vigorously in response to the rains.
Thus there are periods of leaf fall and canopy regrowth. The forest
frequently has a thick undergrowth as light can penetrate easily onto the
forest floor.

Trees- Teak, Sal

Animals- Tiger, Chital, Deer,

Thorn forests:

Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid regions of India.

The trees, which are sparsely distributed, are surrounded by open
grassy areas.
Thorn forest trees have long or fibrous roots to reach water at great
depths. These have thorns to reduce water loss through
evapotranspiration.
Trees- Babul, Ber, Neem Animals - Blackbuck, Chinkara, Wolf,

Mangrove forests

grow along the coast especially in the river deltas.

These plants are able to grow in a mix of saline and fresh water.
The mangrove trees have breathing roots that emerge from the
mudbanks.

Trees- Avicenia, Rhizophora

Animals- Crocodile, fish, shorebirds sandpipers

Importance of Forests resource:

1) Consumptive value
2) Environmental services
3) Aesthetic and cultural values.
Problem associated with the forest resource and its conservation.

Grassland Ecosystems

rainfall is usually low and/or the soil depth and quality is poor.
The low rainfall prevents the growth of a large number of trees and
shrubs, but is sufficient to support the growth of grass cover during
the monsoon.

Grassland shows seasonal variation with low productivity during

summer and high productivity during rainy

A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species of insects, birds and

mammals have evolved so that they are adapted to these wide-open
grass covered areas. These animals are able to live in conditions
where food is plentiful after the rains, so that they can store this as
fat that they use during the dry period when there is very little to eat.

Man began to use these grasslands as pastures to feed his livestock

Grassland Types in India:

The Himalayan pasture belt extends up to the snowline. The grasslands at a
lower level form patches along with coniferous or broadleaved forests

The animals migrate up into the high altitude grasslands in summer and
move down into the forest in winter when the snow covers the grassland.
These Himalayan pastures have a large variety of grasses and herbs.
Himalayan hill slopes are covered with thousands of colorful flowering plants.
There are also a large number of medicinal plants.
Terai:

Extends as a belt south of the Himalayan foothills

Terai consists of patches of tall grasslands interspersed with a
Sal forest ecosystem.
The patches of tall elephant grass, which grows to a height of about
5m, are located in low-lying waterlogged areas.

Scrublands of the Deccan Plateau:

Semi-arid plains of Western India, Central India and the Deccan - covered
by grassland tracts with patches of thorn forest.
Several mammals such as the wolf, the blackbuck, the chinkara, and birds
such as floricans are adapted to these arid conditions.
The Scrublands of the Deccan Plateau are covered with seasonal grasses

Shola grasslands:
The Shola grasslands consist of patches on hillslopes along with the
Shola forests on the Western Ghats, Nilgiri and Annamalai ranges.
This forms a patchwork of grassland on the slopes and forest habitats
along the streams and low-lying areas.

Grasslands are not restricted only to low rainfall areas. Certain

grassland types form when clearings are made in different forest types.
The grasslands are related to repeated fires that do not permit the forest to
grow.
Some grass and herb species are more sensitive to excessive grazing
and are suppressed if the area is over grazed.
Others are destroyed by repeated fires and cannot regenerate. Thus
overused or frequently burnt grasslands are degraded and are poor in plant
species diversity.
Important of Grassland:
1) Pasture land

4) habitat for diverse species of insects.

2) Fodder source
3) Grass is also used to thatch houses and farm sheds.

Threats to grassland ecosystem:

Over utilization and changes in land use of the common grazing lands of
rural communities has lead to their degradation. Extinction of their
species- Cheetah, Wolf
A major threat to natural grasslands is the conversion of grasslands into
irrigated farmlands. In the Deccan, grasslands have been altered to
irrigated farms and are now mainly used to grow sugarcane.

How can grassland ecosystems be conserved?

Grasslands should not be overgrazed and areas of the grasslands should

be either closed for grazing or rotational grazing pattern is established.

Fires must be prevented and rapidly controlled. In hilly areas soil and
water management in each micro-catchments helps grasslands to return to
a natural highly productive ecosystem.

To protect the most natural undisturbed grassland ecosystems, Sanctuaries

and National Parks must be created. Their management should focus on
preserving all their unique species of plants and animals.

Desert ecosystem

Desert and semi arid lands are highly specialised and sensitive
ecosystems that are easily destroyed by human activities.
The species of these dry areas can live only in this specialised
habitat.

Desert ecosystem in India:

Deserts and semi arid areas are located in Western India and the Deccan
Plateau. The climate in these vast tracts is extremely dry. There are also cold
deserts such as in Ladakh, which are located in the high plateaus of the
Himalayas.
The most typical desert landscape that is seen in Rajasthan is in the Thar
Desert. This has sand dunes. There are also areas covered with sparse
grasses and a few shrubs, which grow if it rains.
In most areas of the Thar, the rainfall is scanty and sporadic. In an area it
may rain only once every few years.
In the adjoining semi arid tract the vegetation consists of a few shrubs and
thorny trees such as kher and babul

 The Great and Little Rann of Kutch are highly specialized arid
ecosystems. In the summers they are similar to a desert landscape.
However as these are low-lying areas near the sea, they get converted to
salt marshes during the monsoons.
During this period they attract an high number of aquatic birds such as
ducks, geese, cranes, storks, etc.
Desert and semi arid regions have a number of highly specialized insects
and reptiles. The rare animals include the Indian wolf, desert cat, desert fox
and birds such as The Great Indian Bustard and the Florican.
Some of the commoner birds include partridges, quails and sandgrouse.
How are desert and semi-arid ecosystems used?
Areas of scanty vegetation with semi-arid scrubland have been used for
camel, cattle and goat grazing in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Areas that have a little moisture, have been used for growing crops such
as jowar, and bajra.
The natural grasses and local varieties of crops have adapted to growing at
very low moisture levels. These can be used for genetic engineering and
developing arid land crops for the future.

What are the threats to desert ecosystems?

Conversion of these lands through extensive irrigation systems has changed

several of the natural characteristics of this region. The canal water
evaporates rapidly bringing the salts to the surface. The region
becomes highly unproductive as it becomes saline. Example: The Indira
Gandhi Canal
Pulling excessive groundwater from tube wells lowers the water table
creating an even drier environment.

How can desert ecosystems be conserved?

Desert ecosystems are extremely sensitive. Their ecological balance that

forms a habitat for their plants and animals is easily disturbed.
Desert people have traditionally protected their little water resources. The
Bishnois in Rajasthan are known to have protected their Khejdi trees and
the blackbuck antelope for several generations.
There is an urgent need to protect residual patches of this ecosystem
within National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in desert and semi arid areas.

Aquatic ecosystems

The Pond ecosystem

The pond is the simplest aquatic ecosystem to observe.

There are differences in a pond that is temporary and has water only in
the monsoon, and a lake that is an aquatic ecosystem throughout the
year.
Most ponds become dry after the rains are over and are covered by
terrestrial plants for the rest of the year.

When a pond begins to fill during the rains, its life forms such as the
algae and microscopic animals, aquatic insects, snails, and worms
come out of the floor of the pond where they have remained dormant in
the dry phase.

Gradually more complex animals such as crabs frogs and fish

return to the pond. The vegetation in the water consists of floating
weeds and rooted vegetation on the periphery which grow on the
muddy floor under water and emerge out of the surface of the water.

 As the pond fills in the monsoon a large number of food chains are
formed.
Algae is eaten by microscopic animals, which are in turn eaten
by small fish on which larger carnivorous fish depend. These are
in turn eaten by birds such as kingfishers, herons and birds of prey.
Aquatic insects, worms and snails feed on the waste material
excreted by animals and the dead or decaying plant and animal
matter.
The temporary ponds begin to dry after the rains and the
surrounding grasses and terrestrial plants spread into the moist mud
that is exposed. Animals such as frogs, snails and worms remain
dormant in the mud, awaiting the next monsoon.

Lake Ecosystem:

Euphotic zone
( High productivity)
Aphotic zone
(little productivity)
Lakes are big fresh water bodies with standing water. They are divided into
shallow water zone called Littoral zone, an open water zone where effective
penetration of solar light takes place called Limnetic zone and deep
profundal zone with no penetration of light.
Lakes shows thermal stratification during the summer period:
Epilimnion( warm surface layer) and Hypolimnion ( Cold, bottom layer). In
between there is thermocline( region of sharp drop in temperature).

Lakes can be Oligotrophic (low nutrient concentration), mesotrophic and

eutrophic( high nutrient concentration especially nitrogen and phosphate)
River ecosystem: Its a lotic ecosystem, where water flow downward from
mountain highland and flowing through the plain fall in the sea. River
ecosystem have two type of production: autochthonous( production within the
stream) and allochthonous( supplied from terrestrial sources).

Ocean ecosystem:

Ocean have two major life zone:

1) Costal zone: relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water. Due to ample
sunlight it is zone of high productivity.

Open sea: It is deeper part of ocean away from the continental shelf. It is
vertically divided into three parts:
a) Euphotic zone: receive abundant sunlight and shows high photosynthetic
activity.
b) Bathyal zone: receive dim light and is zone of geological activity.
c) Abyssal zone: is the dark zone( 2000 to 5000 meter deep), however it
support worlds largest ecological unit.

Estuary ecosystem: It is partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of river

where fresh water and salty sea water meet. Therefore organism present in in
estuaries shows wide range of tolerance for temperature and salinity. Such
organism are known as eurythermal and euryhaline.
Estuaries have a rich biodiversity and many of the species are endemic.

How are aquatic ecosystems used?

clean freshwater on which his life is completely dependent and for

other domestic uses.
Water is essential for agriculture
Marshes and wetlands are of great economic importance for people
who live on their fish, crustacea, reeds, grasses and other produce.

What are the threats to aquatic ecosystems?

Water pollution occurs from sewage and poorly managed solid waste in
urban areas when it enters the aquatic ecosystem of lakes and rivers.

Sewage leads to a process called eutrophication, which destroys life in the

water as the oxygen content is severely reduced.

Beside domestic waste addition of industrial waste results into metal

pollution, which is dangerous for both aquatic biota and human life.

How can aquatic ecosystems be conserved?

Water pollution must be prevented.

Aquatic ecosystems, especially wetlands, need protection by

including them in Sanctuaries or National Parks in the same way in
which we protect natural forests.

Construction of dam and barrage should be avoided to maintain

the natural flow of river system.