SOIL MECHANICS COURSE OUTLINE

Course Description:

The study of the fundamental principles of soil

engineering or geotechnical engineering, its
relationships to the design and built environment, it is
also the study of the basic principle involving important
physical and engineering properties of soil.

Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Description and Identification of Soils
Index Properties of Soil
Grain Size Analysis
Soil Classification

Soil Water Relationship

Soil Density
Permeability of Soil
Shearing Resistance of Soil
Additional Topic (Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering)

Laboratory Activities:

Preparation of disturbed and undisturbed soil

Grain-size analysis
Determination of water content, unit weight, and
void ratio
Specific gravity test
Liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage test
Compaction test
Density determination
Permeability test
Unconfined compression test
Consolidation test

References:
Engineering Properties of Soil, Joseph Bowles
Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, Donald Taylor
Soil Mechanics with Foundation Engineering, Mc Carthy
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Das
Methodology

Lecture/ Discussion
Recitation/ Seatwork/ Board Work
Laboratory Experiment
Site Visit (On going project/ construction)

 Student

Performance Evaluation:

Quiz/ Exam
Assignment/ Seatwork/ Board Work
Laboratory Experiment
Recitation/ Attendance

 Grading

System:

Quiz/ Exam 60%

Laboratory Experiment/ Project 20%
Assignment/ Seatwork/ Recitation/
Board Work 10%
Attendance 5%
Compilation of Course Notes 5%

Course Notes Requirements:

Use black pen
Use short bond paper
Reading materials such as handouts or photocopied materials shall
be included in the compilation and arrange according to topic

Laboratory Experiment:
Individual results/ data shall be submitted after the laboratory
experiment
Group/ final data of the experiment shall be submitted by the
assigned group leader
Compilation of experiment

SOIL MECHANICS
IS THE APPLICATION OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICS TO THE SOIL PROBLEMS
DEALING WITH SOILS AS A FOUNDATION
AND CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
ENGG MECHANICS AND STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS IS USED TO UNDERSTAND AND
INTERPRET THE PROPERTIES, BEHAVIOR
AND PERFORMANCE OF SOIL

Soil mechanics has become a

distinct and separate branch of
engineering mechanics because soils
have a number of special
properties, which
distinguish the material from other
materials.

Its development has also been

stimulated, of course, by the wide
range of applications of soil
engineering in civil engineering, as all
structures require a sound foundation
and should transfer its loads to the
soil.

The most important

special properties of soils will be
described briefly in this chapter. In
further chapters they will be
treated in greater detail,
concentrating on
quantitative methods of analysis.

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING IS
THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF THAT
PART OF CIVIL ENGINEERING THAT
INVOLVES NATURAL MATERIALS
FOUND CLOSE TO THE SURFACE OF
THE EARTH.

SUBSET OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

WHICH INVOLVES THE APPLICATION OF
SOIL MECHANICS, GEOLOGY AND
HYDRAULICS TO THE ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN OF GEOTECHNICAL SYSTEM SUCH
AS DAMS, EMBANKMENTS, TUNNELS,
CANALS AND WATERWAYS FOUNDATION
FOR BRIDGES, ROADS, BUILDINGS, ETC.

ENGG APPLICATION OF SOIL MECHANICS

INVOLVES UNCERTAINTY BECAUSE OF
VARIABILITY OF SOIL AND THEIR
COMPOSITION.

Course Goals
Understand

the physical and

mechanical properties of soils
Determine the parameters from soil
testing to characterize soil properties,
soil strength and soil deformation
Apply the principles of soil mechanics t
analyze simple geotechnical system

Importance of Soil Mechanics in Civil

Engineering Structures
Foundation Analysis
Bridge Pier/Column
Highway/Pavement Construction
Off shore/Marine
Canal
Slope Stabilization Structures

Driven
micropile

Compaction grout
micropile

Jet grout micropile

Post grouted micropile

Pressurized grouted pile

Drilled end bearing micropile

BASIC EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS IN SOIL

MECHANICS

California Bearing Equipment

Tri-axial Shear Apparatus

Direct Shear Apparatus

-Use for determining the shear strength

of the soil

Rotap Sieve Shaker

Casagrande Apparatus
Use for determining
the liquid limit of
the soil.

Moisture
content,
%
25
No. of blows

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer can be
used to indicate the compaction/density
of soil/fill materials.
This apparatus can be very useful in
monitoring the compaction of trench
reinstatements depending on the nature
of the reinstatement material, it is
particularly useful because the cone is on
the end of a long rod, approximately a
metre long.

Proctor Mold Apparatus

The aim of the test is to
establish the maximum dry
density that may be
attained for a given soil
with a standard amount of
compactive effort. When a
series of samples of a soil
are compacted at different
water content the plot
usually shows a distinct
peak.

Sand Cone Apparatus

When the compaction
work is progressing in
the field, it is useful to
know whether or not
the unit weight
specified is achieved

Range of Application

Pile Wall with Tie-Back Anchors as Temporary Excavation Protection

and as Permanent Basement Wall

Range of Application

Philippines
Piling Works for Metro Line in Manila

Mozambique
Piles for Jetty / Aluminium Plant in Maputo

Chile
Drilling of piles =2,5 m

Casing

Conglomerate

Claystone

Soils and their

Classification

Natural Soil Deposits

Soil is produced by weathering-the

breaking down of various types of
rocks into smaller pieces through
mechanical and chemical processes.
Residual soils: soils stays where they
are formed and cover the rock surface
from which they are derived
Transported soils: are formed through
physical processes to other places and
deposited

Soil Deposits and Grain Size Analysis

Soil:

defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral

grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles)
along with the liquid and gas that occupy the empty
spaces between the solid particles

Used as a construction material in

various civil engineering projects and its
supports structural foundations

Soils - What are they?

Particulate materials
- Sedimentary origins (usually)
- Residual

Wide range of particle sizes

- larger particles: quartz, feldspar
- very small particles: clay minerals

Voids between particles

 Transported

Soil

Transporting agent
Alluvial or fluvial soil deposited by
running water
Glacial deposited by glacier action
Aeolian deposited by wind action

Need for Simple Classification

Usually soil on site has to be used.

Soils differ from other engineering materials in that one has little
control over their properties

Extent and properties of the soil have to be determined

Cheap and simple tests are required to give an indication of

engineering properties, e.g. stiffness, strength, for preliminary design
The classification must use core samples obtained from the ground.
This information is often supplemented by in-situ tests such as cone
penetration tests.

Soil Particles Size

Soils are generally called gravel, sand, silt or clay

GRAVELS are pieces of rocks with occasional particles
of quartz, feldspar and other minerals
SAND particles are made of mostly quartz and feldspar.
Other mineral grains may also be present at times
SILTS are the microscopic soil fractions that consist of
very fine quartz grains and some flake-shaped particles
that are fragments of micaceous minerals
CLAYS are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and
submicroscopic particles of mica, clay minerals and
other minerals

Classification based on Particle

Size

Particle size is used because it is related to

mineralogy
e.g. very small particles usually contain
clay minerals

Classification based on Particle Size

Broad

Classification

Coarse grained soils

sands, gravels - visible to naked eye

Fine grained soils

silts, clays, organic soils

SOIL SEPARATE SIZE LIMITS

Grain Size (mm)
Name of Organization
GRAVEL

SAND

SILTS

CLAY

Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology (MIT)

2 to 0.06

0.06 0.002

< 0.002

United States
Department of
Agriculture (USDA)

2 0.05

0.05 0.002

< 0.002

American Association
of State Highway and
Transportation
Officials (AASHTO)

76.2 -2.0

2.0 0.075

0.075-0.002

< 0.002

Unified Soil
Classification System
(ASTM)

76.2-4.75

4.75-0.075

Fines
(silts and clays)
< 0.075

LOESS SOIL

Mechanical Analysis of Soil

Mechanical Analysis is the determination of size range of

particles present in a soil, expressed as a percentage of the total
dry weight (or mass).
Two Methods of Mechanical Analysis of Soil
1) Sieve Analysis consists of shaking the soil sample
through a set of sieves that have progressively smaller openings.
Particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter
2) Hydrometer Analysis for particle sizes smaller than
0.075 mm in diameter. This is based on the principle of
sedimentation of soil grains in water

US Standard Sieve Sizes

Sieve Number

Sieve Opening (mm)

Sieve Number

Sieve Opening (mm)

4.750

60

0.250

3.350

80

0.180

2.360

100

0.150

10

2.0

140

0.106

16

1.18

170

0.088

20

0.850

200

0.075

30

0.600

270

0.053

40

0.425

300

0.045

50

0.300

350

0.030

Sample Sieve Analysis

Sample Problem

Mass of dry soil sample = 450 grams

Sieve No.
(1)

Diameter, mm
(2)

10
(9.90/450)
100 =2 2.20

Mass of soil retained on

each sieve, g
(3)

Percent of soil retained

on each sieve
(4)

Percent Passing or
percent finer
(5)

100

16

1.18

9.90

2.20

97.80

30

0.60

24.66

5.48

92.32

40

(100 2.20 = 97.80

0.425

17.60

3.91

88.41

60

0.250

23.90

5.31

83.10

100

0.150

35.10

7.80

75.30

200

0.075

59.85

13.30

62.00

Pan

278.99

62.00

Column 4 = {(column 3)/total mass of soil } x 100

Percent Passing = Passing % per sieve - % Retained

Procedure for grain size determination

Sieving - used for particles > 75 m

Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

Analysis based on Stokes Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

Procedure for grain size determination

Sieving - used for particles > 75 m

Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

Analysis based on Stokes Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001
W

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

Well graded

10

100

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

10

100

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

Poorly graded

10

100

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

Poorly graded

Well graded with some clay

10

100

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

Poorly graded

Well graded with some clay

Well graded with an excess of fines

10

100

Simple Classification

In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

different proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.

Simple Classification

In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

different proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.

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Simple Classification

In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with different

proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.

Note the importance of clay - Finest 20% control behaviour

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Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay

Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay

Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay

CONSISTENCY OF SOIL

When clay minerals are present in fine grained soil, that soil can be
remolded in the presence of some moisture without crumbling. This
cohesive nature is because of the adsorbed water surrounding the clay
particles

Albert Atterberg developed a method to describe the consistency of the

fine grained soils with varying moisture contents.
At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a brittle solid.
When the moisture content is very high, soil and water may flow like a
liquid

Nature of Soil Behavior (Four Basic States)

Solid
Semi Solid
Plastic
Liquid

Atterberg Limit

Shrinkage Limit the moisture content, %, at which

the transition from solid to semisolid state takes place

Plastic Limit the moisture content at the point of

transition from semisolid to plastic state

Liquid Limit from plastic to liquid state

Solid

SemiSolid

Shrinkage Limit

Plastic

Plastic Limit

Liquid

Liquid Limit

Moisture
Content
Increasing

Atterberg Limits

Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils

Atterberg Limits
Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils
Volume

40
30
20
10
0
0

SL
PL
LL
20 Moisture
40
60
Content (%)

Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during drying

Atterberg Limits
Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils
Volume

40
30
20
10
0
0

SL
PL
LL
20 Moisture
40
60
Content (%)

Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during

drying

SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit

PHASE

SOLID
STATE

SEMI-SOLID
STATE

WATER

LIMITS

PLASTIC
STATE

LIQUID
STATE

SUSPENSION

Water Content Decreasing

DRY
SOIL

SL

PL

LL

PLASTICITY INDEX

SHRINKAGE

VOLUME
CONSTANT

CONDITION

HARD TO
STIFF

SHEAR
STRENGTH
KN/M2
MOISTURE
CONTENT

VOLUME DECREASING
WORKABLE

STICKY

SLURRY

SHEAR STRENGTH
INCREASING
0

SL

PL

WATER-HELD
SUSPENSION

NEGLIGIBLE TO
NIL
PI

LL

Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit

Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit

Plasticity Index = LL - PL = PI or Ip

Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit

Plasticity Index = LL - PL = PI or Ip
Liquidity Index = (m - PL)/Ip = LI

Liquid Limit Test

Liquid Limit device

The device consists of a brass cup and
hard rubber base. The brass cup can
be dropped on the base by a cam
operated by a crank.
A groove is cut at the center of the soil pat using a standard grooving
tool. The cup is then repeatedly dropped from a height of 10 mm until
a groove closure of 12.7mm.
The soil is then removed and its moisture content is determined. This
test is then repeated at various moisture contents with the
corresponding number of drops. The soil is said to be at its liquid limit
when exactly 25 drops are required to close the groove for a distance of
12.7mm

Needle

Soil Sample

Moisture Content %

Cone Penetration Test

20 mm
Penetration
Soil is subjected to different moisture
content
Standard penetration is 20 mm

Definition of Liquid Limit

LL is the moisture content at which the groove

would close after 25 blows, which increase the
precision of the blow count determination.
Different amounts of water are added to a soil
sample and stirred in, and the test repeated so
that the blow counts bracket are required 25.

A soil passing the No 40 sieve is mixed with

water to a paste consistency and stored
overnight

25

Plastic Limit

Plastic Limit is defined as the moisture content, %, at

which the soil when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm in
diameter, crumbles. The PL is the lower limit of the
plastic stage of soil. The test is simple and is
performed by repeated rollings of an ellipsoidal size
soil mass by hand on a ground glass plate.

Plasticity Index is the difference between the liquid

limit and plastic limit of a soil

PI = LL - PL

Shrinkage Limit

Shrinkage limit is the moisture content at which the

volume change of the soil mass ceases

Soil mass shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from

the soil. With continuous loss of moisture, a stage of
equilibrium is reached at which more loss of moisture
will result in no further volume change.
SL = wi Dw
wi = initial moisture content when the soil is placed in
the shrinkage limit dish
Dw = change in moisture content

Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit tests are more

diagnostic than descriptive of soil behavior in
the field because the tests involve continual
remolding

Exceeding the soil liquid limit in the field can

generate harmful and potentially devastating results,
as the soil may appear t be stable and then when
disturbed can suddenly break away losing its
thixotropic strength and becoming transported into a
rapid churning, flowing mudslide that takes
everything in its way

Liquidity Index (LI)

Indicates how far the natural soil moisture

content has progressed between the plastic and
liquid limits. If the soil moisture content is at
the plastic limit, the liquidity index is 0, if it is
at the liquid limit, it is 1.0.
w - PL
LI = ---------------LL - PL

Characteristics of Soil

LI < 0 - Brittle Solid

0 < LI < 1 Plastic

LI > 1 - Liquid

Plasticity Index (PI)

Indicates the degree of surface chemical activity and

hence the bonding properties of clay minerals in a soil
Used along with the liquid limit and particle size
gradation to classify soils according to their
engineering behavior
As an indicator of the suitability of the clay indicator
of the suitability of the clay binder in a soil mixture
used for pavement subgrades, base course and
subbase course

Activity of Clay Minerals

Since the plastic property of soil results from the

adsorbed water that surrounds the clay particles, we
can expect that the type of clay minerals and their
proportional amounts in a soil will affect the liquid
and plastic limits.
Ac = PI/ (percent of clay-size fraction, by weight)

Activity is used as an index for identifying the swelling potential

of clay soils

Using the AASHTO Chart

The process of determining the group or subgroup to which a soil belongs is simplified by
the use of the chart

A system of soil classification was devised by Terzaghi and Hogentogler for the US
Bureau of Public Roads in the late 1920s

The Public Roads system was subsequently modified and adopted by AASHTO

Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials

General Classification

Granular Materials
(35% or less of total sample passing no. 200)

Group classification

A 1
A-1-a

A-2
A-1-b

A-3

A-2-4

A-2-5

A-2-6

A-2-7

Sieve analysis, % passing

No. 10

50 max

No. 40

30 max

50 max

50 min

No. 200

15 max

25 max

10 max

35 max

35 max

35 max

35 max

Characteristics of fraction passing No 40 sieve

LL

40 max

41 min

40 max

41 min

PI

6 max

NP

10 max

10 max

11 min

11 min

Usual types of
significant constituents
materials

Stone fragments, gravel

and sand

Fine
Sand

Silty or Clayey gravel sand

General subgrade rating

Excellent to Good

Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION

Silty-Clay Materials
(more than 35% of total sample passing No. 200)

Group Classification

A-4

A-5

A-7
A-7-5*
A-7-6**

A-6

Sieve analysis (% passing)

No.10
No. 40
No. 200

36 min

36 min

36 min

36 min

Characteristics of fraction
Passing No.40
Liquid Limit

40 max

41 min

40 max

41 min

Plasticity Index

10 max

10 max

11 min

11min

Usual types of significant

constituents materials
General Subgrade rating
* For A-7-5, PI < LL-30
** A-7-6, PI > LL-30

Silty soils

Clayey Soils
Fair to poor

Group Index
G.I. gives a means further rating a soil within
its group or subgroup
Use for evaluating the quality of a soil as a
highway subgrade material

GI = (F-35) [0.2 + 0.005 (LL 40)] + 0.01 (F-15) (PI 10)

LL = LIQUID LIMIT
F = % PASSING IN SIEVE 200
PI=PLASTICITY INDEX

Group Index

Following are some rules for determining the

group index:
If the value of group index is negative value, it is
taken as 0.
There is no upper limit for the group index
The group index of soils belonging to groups
When calculating the GI for soils that are belong to
groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, Use partial group index
PGI = 0.01 (F-15) (PI-10)

Classification Systems

Used to determine the suitability of different soils

Used to develop correlations with useful soil properties

Special Purpose (Local) Systems

e.g. PRA system of AAHSO

1. Well graded sand or gravel: may include fines

2. Sands and Gravels with excess fines
3. Fine sands
4. Low compressibility silts
5. High compressibility silts
6. Low to medium compressibility clays
7. High compressibility clays
8. Peat and organic soils

Grading vs. Sorting

Well Graded - Good

representation of all
particle sizes from largest
to smallest
Poorly Graded - Uniform,
most particles about the
same size; or skip (or gap)
gradation, absence of one
or more intermediate
sizes.

Poorly Sorted
Well Sorted

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.
Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 m)

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.
Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 m)
Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand
Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.
Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 m)
Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand
Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel
Suffix depends on %fines

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.
Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 m)
Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand
Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel
Suffix depends on %fines
if %fines < 5% suffix is either W or P
if %fines > 12% suffix is either M or C
if 5% < %fines < 12% Dual symbols are used

D
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Unified Soil Classification

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x% of the soil has particles

smaller than Dx

D
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u
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D
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Unified Soil Classification

To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc

x% of the soil has particles

smaller than Dx

100

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80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

10

100

D
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C

u
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2
D
3
C
c()601

Unified Soil Classification

To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc

x% of the soil has particles

smaller than Dx

100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

10

100

D
6
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C

u
1
2
D
3
C
c()601

Unified Soil Classification

To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc

x% of the soil has particles

smaller than Dx

100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

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10

D90 = 3
mm

100

D
6
0
C

u
1
2
D
3
0
C
c
()61

Unified Soil Classification

To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc

If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use

If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use

Unified Soil Classification

Coarse grained soils
To determine M or C use plasticity chart

Plastictyindex

6
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Above A-line use suffix C - Clay

Unified Soil Classification

Fine grained soils (> 50% finer than 75 m)
Both letters determined from plasticity chart

Plastictyindex

6
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Example
100

% Finer

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Example
100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Particle size (mm)

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Example
100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Particle size (mm)

%fines (% finer than 75 m) = 11% - Dual symbols required

D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm

Example

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100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

Particle size fractions: Gravel

Sand

17%
73%

Silt and Clay 10%

10

100

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Dual Symbols are SW-SM

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Dual Symbols are SW-SM
To complete the classification the Symbols should be accompanied
by a description

Soil Classification

1. Purpose
Classifying

soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms

of simple indices, can provide geotechnical engineers a
general guidance about engineering properties of the soils
through the accumulated experience.
Communicate
between engineers

Simple

indices

GSD, LL, PI

Classification
system
(Language)
Use the
accumulated
experience

Estimate
engineering
properties

Achieve
engineering
purposes

2. Classification Systems
Two

commonly used systems:

Unified

Soil Classification System (USCS).

American Association

of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO) System

3. Unified Soil Classification System

(USCS)
Origin of USCS:
This system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande
(1948) for the purpose of airfield construction during World
War II. Afterwards, it was modified by Professor Casagrande,
the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers to enable the system to be applicable to dams,
foundations, and other construction (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
Four major divisions:
(1) Coarse-grained
(2) Fine-grained
(3) Organic soils
(4) Peat

3.1 Definition of Grain Size

No specific
grain size-use
Atterberg limits

Gravel
Boulders Cobble
s
300 mm

Coarse

Fine

75 mm
19 mm

Silt and

Sand
Coarse

Medium

Clay

Fine

No.4

No.200

4.75 mm

0.075
mm

No.10

No.40

2.0 mm

0.425 mm

3.2 General Guidance

50 %
Coarse-grained soils:

Fine-grained soils:

Gravel

Silt

50%

Sand

NO. 4
4.75 mm

Clay

NO.200
0.075
mm

Grain size distribution

PL, LL

Cu

Plasticity chart

Cc

Required tests: Sieve analysis

Atterberg limit

LL>50
LL <50

3.3 Symbols

Soil symbols:
G: Gravel
S: Sand
M: Silt
C: Clay
O: Organic
Pt: Peat

Example: SW, Well-graded sand

SC, Clayey sand
SM, Silty sand,
MH, Elastic silt

Liquid limit symbols:

H: High LL (LL>50)
L: Low LL (LL<50)
Gradation symbols:
W: Well-graded
P: Poorly-graded
Well graded soil
1 C c 3 and C u 4
(for gravels)
1 C c 3 and C u 6
(for sands)

3.4 Plasticity Chart

L

The A-line generally

separates
the
more
claylike materials from
silty materials, and the
organics
from
the
inorganics.

PI

The U-line indicates the

upper bound for general
soils.
Note: If the measured
limits of soils are on the
left of U-line, they
should be rechecked.

LL

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

3.5 Procedures for Classification

Coarse-grained
material
Grain size
distribution

Fine-grained
material
LL, PI

Highly
(Santamarina et al., 2001)

3.6 ExamplePassing No.4 sieve 70 %

Passing No.200 sieve 30 %

LL= 33
PI= 12

Passing No.200 sieve 30 %

Passing No.4 sieve 70 %
LL= 33
PI= 12
PI= 0.73(LL-20), A-line
PI=0.73(33-20)=9.49
SC
(15% gravel)
Clayey sand with
gravel

Highly

(Santamarina et al., 2001)

3.7 Organic Soils

Highly

organic soils- Peat (Group symbol PT)

A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various

stages of decomposition and has a fibrous to amorphous
texture, a dark-brown to black color, and an organic odor
should be designated as a highly organic soil and shall be
classified as peat, PT.
Organic

clay or silt( group symbol OL or OH):

The soils liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than 75
% of its liquid limit before oven drying. If the above
statement is true, then the first symbol is O.
The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of PI and
LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.

3.8 Borderline Cases (Dual

Symbols)
For the following three conditions, a dual symbol
should be used.
Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic
conductivity of the coarse-grained media by orders of
magnitude.
The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is
well or poorly graded. The second symbol describe the
contained fines. For example: SP-SM, poorly graded
sand with silt.

3.8 Borderline Cases (Dual

Symbols)
Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded
zone. (PI between 4 and 7 and LL between about
12 and 25).
It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more
claylike materials.
CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayed sand.
Soil

contain similar fines and coarse-grained

fractions.
possible dual symbols GM-ML

3.8 Borderline Cases (Summary)

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

5. Suggested Homework

equipment, or by hand. The consistency is often very much dependent on the amount of water in the soil. This is expressed by the
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6. References

Main References:
Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th edition, PWS
Publishing Company. (Chapter 3)
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering, Prentice Hall. (Chapter 3)
Others:
Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., and Fam, M.A. (2001). Soils and Waves, John
Wiley & Sons, LTD.