WELDING

A. Arslan KAYA, Prof. Dr.

ANADOLU UNIVERSITY
and
MULA UNIVERSITY

In this series of lectures we will be dealing with welding of steels and some of the
non-ferrous metals, namely aluminium, magnesium and titanium.
Welding of steel can be viewed as a steel making and/or casting process at a miniature
scale.
Therefore, issues such as slag formation due to oxidation, loss of alloying elements due
to oxidation, shrinkage porosity, gas holes due to entrapped gases, residual stresses and
cracks due to thermal contractions etc. are all of our concerns during welding.
Furthermore, grain size and morphology are also matters that need to be considered
as in casting.

In all welds, in addition to the weld seam itself there exist a neighbouring zone called
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) where microstructural changes in the welded part can occur.
HAZ of steel welds are particularly important as a detrimental phase transformation into
martensite can happen. Furthermore, formation of retained austenite creates additional
danger in terms of reliability of the weld under varying service conditions.

Preheating

ls are rather good conductors of heat. As a result, the heat

area is rapidly dispersed through the whole weldment to all surfaces
the atmosphere causing comparatively rapid cooling.

etals, this rapid cooling may contribute to the formation of microstruc

one that are detrimental (e.g. Martensite).

the weldment before it is welded is a method of slowing the cooling

metal. The preheat temperature may vary from 150F to 1000F, but
it is held in the 300F to 400F range. The thicker the weld metal, the
be necessary to preheat, because the heat will be conducted away f

Stress Relieving

and when heated and contract when cooled. The amount of expansio
portional to the amount of heat applied. In a weldment, the metal clos
subjected to the highest temperature, and as the distance from the w
the maximum temperature reached decreases. This nonuniform heat
nuniform expansion and contraction and can cause distortion and inte
thin the weldment. Depending on its composition and usage, the met
able to resist these stresses and cracking or early failure of the part
minimize these stresses or to relieve them is by uniformly heating th
been welded. The metal is heated to temperatures just below the poi
ure change would occur and then it is cooled at a slow rate.

Principles of Electricity

ng is a method of joining metals accomplished by applying sufficient e

o an electrode to maintain a current path (arc) between the electrode
e. In this process, electrical energy is changed into heat energy, bring
a molten state; whereby they are joined.

ode (conductor) is either melted and added to the base metal or rem
. All arc welding utilizes the transfer of electrical energy to heat energ
d this principle, a basic knowledge of electricity and welding power so
.

Since we know that like charges repel and unlike charges attract, the tendency is
for the electrons to move from a position of over-supply (negative charge) to an atom that
lacks electrons (positive charge). This tendency becomes reality when a suitable path is
provided for the movement of the electrons. The transfer of electrons from a negative to a
positive charge throughout the length of a conductor constitutes an electrical current. The
rate that current flows through a conductor is measured in amperes and the word ampere
is often used synonymously with the term current. To give an idea of the quantities of
electrons that flow through a circuit, it has been theoretically established that one ampere
equals 6.3 quintillion (6,300,000,000,000,000,000) electrons flowing past a fixed point in a
conductor every second.
The theory of electrical resistance is of great importance in the arc welding
process for it is this resistance in the air space between the electrode and the base metal
that contributes to the transfer of electrical energy to heat energy. As voltage forces the
electrons to move faster, the energy they generate is partially used to overcome the
resistance created by the arc gap. This energy becomes evident as heat. In the welding
process, the temperature increases to the point where it brings metals to a molten state.

ANALOGY BETWEEN A WATER CIRCUIT AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

Ohm's Law can be stated mathematically with the equation:

I = E R or E = I R or R = E I
(E = Volts, I = Amperes, R = Resistance (Ohms))

Electrical Power

"watt" is another term frequently encountered in electrical terminolog

pay our electrical bills, we are actually paying for the power to run ou
s, and the watt is a unit of power. It is defined as the amount of power
n a current of one ampere at a pressure of one volt.

voltage that comes into your home is a constant factor, but the ampe
m the utility company depends on the number of watts required to run
appliance. The watt is figured as a product of volts times amperes and
thematically with the following equation:
W =E I E = W I I = W E
(W = Watts, E = Volts, I = Amperes)

Power Generation
energy is supplied either as direct current (DC) or alternating current (
current, the electron movement within the conductor is in one directi
ating current, the electron flow reverses periodically.
ome types of electrical generators will produce current directly (such
dry cells, or DC generators), most direct current is developed from alt

of the method of electricity production (angular movement of a cond

a magnetic field) the current shows a sinusoidal change. With this sin
e that one complete cycle of alternating current comprises one positi
ve wave (negative and positive meaning electron flow in opposing dir
ncy of alternating current is the number of such complete cycles per

Some welders use a three-phase AC supply. Three-phase is simply three sources of AC

power as identical voltages brought in by three wires, the three voltages or phases being
separated by 120 electrical degrees. If the sine wave for the three phases are plotted on
one line, they will appear as shown in Figure below.

This illustrates that three-phase power is smoother than single-phase because the
overlapping three phases prevent the current and voltage from falling to zero 120 times
a second, thereby producing a smoother welding arc.
Since all shops do not have three-phase power, welding machines for both
single-phase and three-phase power are available.

Transformers
on of a transformer is to increase or decrease voltage to a safe value
demand. Common household voltage is usually 115 or 230 volts, wh
ower requirements may be 208, 230, 380, or 460 volts.

ng such relatively low voltages over long distances would require a co

size. Therefore, power transmitted from a power plant must be
for long distance transmission and then stepped down for final use.

seen in Figure below, the voltage is generated at the power plant at

ts. It is increased, transmitted over long distances, and then reduced
er. If power supplied to a transformer circuit is held steady, then seco
mperes) decreases as the primary voltage increases, and conversely,
reases as primary voltage decreases. Since the current flow (ampere
s the wire or conductor size, the high voltage line may be of a relative

The transformer in a welding machine performs much the same as a large power
plant transformer. The primary voltage coming into the machine is too high for safe
welding. Therefore, it is stepped down to a useable voltage. This is best illustrated with an
explanation of how a single transformer works.
In the preceding paragraphs, we have stated than an electrical current can be
induced into a conductor when that conductor is moved through a magnetic field to
produce alternating current. If this alternating current is passed through a conductor, a
pulsating magnetic field will surround the exterior of that conductor.
If that conductor is wound around a material with high magnetic permeability
(magnetic permeability is the ability to accept large amounts of magnetic lines of force)
such as steel, the magnetic field permeates that core (see the next Figure).

The first conductor is called the primary coil, and if voltage is applied to one of its terminals
and the circuit is completed, current will flow. This current creates a magnetic field in the
steel core (which is easily magnetized due to its high magnetic permeability) and if we now
wind another conductor to the same steel core at the other end, a current will be created in
this second conductor. Because the build-up and collapse of the magnetic field in the steel
core will excite the electrons in the secondary coil of the transformer. This electrical
current will be of the same frequency as the primary coil to flow when the secondary circuit
is completed by striking the welding arc. The change in the voltage will depend on the
number of windings of the first and the second coils.
Remember that no current (amperage) flows until the welding circuit is completed by
striking the arc.

Remember that all transformers operate only on alternating current.

Now we can further control the voltage and amperage values by using an output controller
which works simply according to the Ohms law.
Theoretically, a variable resistor of the proper value could be used as an output control
since voltage is inversely proportional to resistance as we saw when studying Ohm's Law.
Ohm's Law also stated that the amperage is directly proportional to the voltage.
This being so, you can see that adjusting the output control will also adjust the amperage
or welding current.

Rectifying AC to DC

much welding is accomplished with AC welding power sources, the m

welding is done with machines that produce a direct current arc.
ercially produced AC power that operates the welding machine
be changed (rectified) to direct current for the DC arc. This is accomp
ce called a rectifier.

of rectifiers have been used extensively in welding machines, the old

nd the more modern silicon rectifiers, often referred to as diodes.

The function of a rectifier in the circuit can best be shown by the use of the
AC sine wave. With one diode in the circuit, half-wave rectification takes place as shown
in Figure below.
The negative half-wave is simply cut off and a pulsating DC is produced. During
the positive half-cycle, current is allowed to flow through the rectifier. During the negative
half-cycle, the current is blocked. This produces a DC composed of 60 positive pulses per
second.

By using four rectifiers connected in a certain manner, a bridge rectifier is created,

producing full wave rectification. The bridge rectifier results in 120 positive half-cycles per
second, producing a considerably smoother direct current than half-wave rectification.

Three-phase AC can be rectified to produce an even smoother DC than single-phase

AC. Since three-phase AC power produces three times as many half-cycles per second as
single phase power, a relatively smooth DC voltage results as shown in Figure below.

CONSTANT CURRENT OR CONSTANT VOLTAGE

Welding power sources are designed in many sizes and shapes. They may supply either
AC or DC, or both, and they may have various means of controlling their voltage and
amperage output. The reasons for this is that the power source must be capable of
producing the proper arc characteristics for the welding process being used. A power
source that produces a satisfactory arc when welding with coated electrodes will be less
than satisfactory for welding with solid and flux cored wires.
Constant Current Characteristics
Constant current power sources are used primarily with coated electrodes.
This type of power source has a relatively small change in amperage and arc power for
a corresponding relatively large change in arc voltage or arc length, thus the name
constant current.
In welding with coated electrodes, the output current or amperage is set by the operator
while the voltage is designed into the unit. The operator can vary the arc voltage
somewhat by increasing or decreasing the arc length. A slight increase in arc length will
cause an increase in arc voltage and a slight decrease in amperage. A slight decrease in
arc length will cause a decrease in arc voltage and a slight increase in amperage.

Constant Voltage Characteristics

Constant voltage power sources, also known as constant potential, are used in welding
with solid and flux cored electrodes, and as the name implies, the voltage output remains
relatively constant. On this type of power source, the voltage is set at the machine and
amperage is determined by the speed that the wire is fed to the welding gun.
Increasing the wire feed speed increases the amperage.
Decreasing the wire feed speed decreases the amperage.

Arc length plays an important part in welding with solid and flux cored electrodes,
just as it does in welding with a coated electrode. However, when using a constant voltage
power source and a wire feeder that delivers the wire at a constant speed, arc length
caused by operator error, plate irregularities, and puddle movement are automatically
compensated for by the characteristics of this process. To understand this, keep in mind
that with the proper voltage setting, amperage setting, and arc length, the rate that the wire
melts is dependent upon the amperage. If the amperage decreases, this melt-off rate
decreases and if the amperage increases, so does the melt-off rate.

In Figure below, we see that condition #2 produces the desired arc length, voltage,
and amperage. If the arc length is increased as in #1, the voltage increases slightly;
the amperage decreases considerably, and therefore, the melt-off rate of the wire
decreases.
The wire is now feeding faster than it is melting off. This condition will advance the end
of the wire towards the work piece until the proper arc length is reached where again,
the melt-off rate equals the feeding rate. If the arc length is decreased as in #3, the
voltage drops off slightly, the amperage is increased considerably, and the melt-off rate
of the wire increases. Since the wire is now melting off faster than it is being fed, it
melts back to the proper arc length where the melt-off rate equals the feeding rate.
This is often referred to as a self-adjusting arc. These automatic corrections take place
in fractions of a second, and usually without the operator being aware of them.

There are a variety of different welding machines, each with its own unique
internal design. Our purpose is not to detail the function of each part of the machine,
but to emphasize that their main difference is in the way they control the voltage and
amperage output.
Types of Welding Power Sources
A great variety of welding power sources are being built today for electric arc welding
and we shall mention some of the major types briefly. Welding power sources can be
divided into two main categories: static types and rotating types.
Static Types - Static type power sources are all of those that use commercially
generated electrical power to energize a transformer that, in turn, steps the line voltage
down to useable welding voltages. The two major categories of static power sources
are the transformer type and the rectifier type.

The transformer type produce only alternating current. They are commonly
called "Welding Transformers." All AC types utilize single-phase primary power and are
of the constant current type.
The rectifier types are commonly called "Welding Rectifiers" and produce DC or,
AC and DC welding current. They may utilize either single phase or three phase input
power. They contain a transformer, but rectify the AC or DC by the use of selenium
rectifiers, silicon diodes or silicon controlled rectifiers. Available in either the constant
current or the constant voltage type, some manufacturers offer units that are a
combination of both and can be used for coated electrode welding, non-consumable
electrode welding and for welding with solid or flux cored wires.

COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION
After much experimentation by others in the early 1800's, an Englishman named Wilde
obtained the first electric welding patent in 1865. He successfully joined two small pieces
of iron by passing an electric current through both pieces producing a fusion weld.
Approximately twenty years later, Bernado, a Russian, was granted a patent for an
electric arc welding process in which he maintained an arc between a carbon electrode
and the pieces to be joined, fusing the metals together as the arc was manually passed
over the joint to be welded.

During the 1890's, arc welding was accomplished with bare metal electrodes that
were consumed in the molten puddle and became part of the weld metal. The welds
were of poor quality due to the nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere forming harmful
oxides and nitrides in the weld metal. Early in the Twentieth Century, the importance of
shielding the arc from the atmosphere was realized. Covering the electrode with a
material that decomposed in the heat of the arc to form a gaseous shield appeared to be
the best method to accomplish this end. As a result, various methods of covering
electrodes, such as wrapping and dipping, were tried. These efforts culminated in the
extruded coated electrode in the mid-1920's, greatly improving the quality of the weld
metal and providing what many consider the most significant advance in electric arc
welding.
Since welding with coated electrodes is a rather slow procedure, more rapid
welding processes were later developed.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

SMAW welding in the field

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

This is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA), stick welding, or electric arc
welding, is the most widely used of the various arc welding processes. Welding is
performed with the heat of an electric arc that is maintained between the end of a coated
metal electrode and the work piece (See the Figures).
This method uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to form the weld. An
electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a
welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the
metals to be joined. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates,
giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and
operation, shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding
processes. It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry,
and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to be used
extensively in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The
process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but aluminum,
nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.

To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the workpiece in a
short sweeping motion and then pulled away slightly, with a movement like lighting a
match. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of the workpiece and the consumable
electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be passed from the electrode to the
weld pool. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off vapors that
protect the weld area from oxygen and other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux
provides molten slag which covers the filler metal as it travels from the electrode to the
weld pool. Other functions of the coating are to provide arc stability and control bead
shape.
Initially part of the weld pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from
contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the
finished weld. As welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must
periodically stop welding to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new
electrode into the electrode holder. This activity, combined with chipping away the slag,
reduce the amount of time that the welder can spend laying the weld, making SMAW one
of the least efficient welding processes. In general, the operator factor, or the percentage
of operator's time spent laying weld, is approximately 25%.

Welding Power Sources

Shielded metal arc welding may utilize either alternating current (AC) or direct current
(DC), but in either case, the power source selected must be of the constant current type.
This type of power source will deliver a relatively constant amperage or welding current
regardless of arc length variations by the operator. The amperage determines the
amount of heat at the arc and since it will remain relatively constant, the weld beads
produced will be uniform in size and shape.
Whether to use an AC, DC, or AC/DC power source depends on the type of welding
to be done and the electrodes used. The following factors should be considered:
1. Electrode Selection - Using a DC power source allows the use of a greater range
of electrode types. While most of the electrodes are designed to be used on AC or
DC, some will work properly only on DC.
2. Metal Thickness - DC power sources may be used for welding both heavy
sections and light gauge work. Sheet metal is more easily welded with DC
because it is easier to strike and maintain the DC arc at low currents.

3. Distance from Work - If the distance from the work to the power source is great,
AC is the best choice since the voltage drop through the cables is lower than with
DC. Even though welding cables are made of copper or aluminum (both good
conductors), the resistance in the cables becomes greater as the cable length
increases. In other words, a voltage reading taken between the electrode and the
work will be somewhat lower than a reading taken at the output terminals of the
power source. This is known as voltage drop.
4. Welding Position (See Appendix A - Glossary of Terms) - Because DC may be
operated at lower welding currents, it is more suitable for overhead and vertical
welding than AC. AC can successfully be used for out-of-position work if proper
electrodes are selected.
5. Arc Blow - When welding with DC, magnetic fields are set up throughout the
weldment. In weldments that have varying thickness and protrusions, this magnetic
field can affect the arc by making it stray or fluctuate in direction. This condition is
especially troublesome when welding in corners. AC seldom causes this problem
because of the rapidly reversing magnetic field produced.

The actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the composition of the
workpiece, and the position of the joint being welded. The choice of electrode and
welding position also determine the welding speed. Flat welds require the least operator
skill, and can be done with electrodes that melt quickly but solidify slowly. This permits
higher welding speeds. Sloped, vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator
skill, and often necessitates the use of an electrode that solidifies quickly to prevent the
molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool. However, this generally means that the
electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing the time required to lay the weld.
Quality
The most common quality problems associated with SMAW include weld spatter,
porosity, poor fusion, shallow penetration, and cracking. Weld spatter, while not affecting
the integrity of the weld, damages its appearance and increases cleaning costs. It can be
caused by excessively high current, a long arc, or arc blow, a condition associated with
direct current characterized by the electric arc being deflected away from the weld pool
by magnetic forces. Arc blow can also cause porosity in the weld, as can joint
contamination, high welding speed, and a long welding arc, especially when lowhydrogen electrodes are used. Porosity, often not visible without the use of advanced
nondestructive testing methods, is a serious concern because it can potentially weaken
the weld.

Another defect affecting the strength of the weld is poor fusion, though it is often easily
visible. It is caused by low current, contaminated joint surfaces, or the use of an
improper electrode.
Shallow penetration, another detriment to weld strength, can be addressed by
decreasing welding speed, increasing the current or using a smaller electrode. Any of
these weld-strength related defects can make the weld prone to cracking, but other
factors are involved as well. High carbon, alloy or sulfur content in the base material can
lead to cracking, especially if low-hydrogen electrodes and preheating are not employed.
Furthermore, the workpieces should not be excessively restrained, as this introduces
residual stresses into the weld and can cause cracking as the weld cools and contracts.

Application and Materials

Shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes,
accounting for over half of all welding in some countries. Because of its versatility and
simplicity, it is particularly dominant in the maintenance and repair industry, and is
heavily used in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. In recent
years its use has declined as flux-cored arc welding has expanded in the construction
industry and gas metal arc welding has become more popular in industrial environments.
However, because of the low equipment cost and wide applicability, the process will
likely remain popular, especially among amateurs and small businesses where
specialized welding processes are uneconomical and unnecessary.
SMAW is often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel,
cast iron, and ductile iron. While less popular for nonferrous materials, it can be used on
nickel and copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on aluminum. The thickness of the
material being welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the skill of the welder, but
rarely does it drop below 0.05 in (1.5 mm). No upper bound exists: with proper joint
preparation and use of multiple passes, materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can
be joined. Furthermore, depending on the electrode used and the skill of the welder,
SMAW can be used in any position.

Power supply
The power supply used in SMAW has constant current output, ensuring that the current
(and thus the heat) remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance and voltage
change. This is important because most applications of SMAW are manual, requiring
that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a suitably steady arc distance is difficult if a
constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic heat
variations and make welding more difficult. However, because the current is not
maintained absolutely constant, skilled welders performing complicated welds can vary
the arc length to cause minor fluctuations in the current.
The preferred polarity of the SMAW system depends primarily upon the electrode being
used and the desired properties of the weld. Direct current with a negatively charged
electrode (DCEN) causes heat to build up on the electrode, increasing the electrode
melting rate and decreasing the depth of the weld. Reversing the polarity so that the
electrode is positively charged and the workpiece is negatively charged increases the
weld penetration. With alternating current the polarity changes over 100 times per
second, creating an even heat distribution and providing a balance between electrode
melting rate and penetration.

When using a DC power source, the question of whether to use electrode

negative
or positive polarity arises. Some electrodes operate on both DC straight and
reverse polarity, and others on DC negative or DC positive polarity only.
Direct current flows in one direction in an electrical circuit and the direction of
current flow and the composition of the electrode coating will have a definite
effect on the welding arc and weld bead. Figure below shows the connections
and effects of straight and reverse polarity.

Electrode negative (-) produces welds with shallow penetration; however, the
electrode melt-off rate is high. The weld bead is rather wide and shallow as
shown at "A" in the Figure above.
Electrode positive (+) produces welds with deep penetration and a narrower
weld

Typically, the equipment used for SMAW consists of a step-down transformer and for

direct current models a rectifier, for converting alternating current into direct current.
Because the power normally supplied to the welding machine is high-voltage alternating
current, the welding transformer is used to reduce the voltage and increase the current.
As a result, instead of 220 V at 50 A, for example, the power supplied by the transformer
is around 1745 V at currents up to 600 A. A number of different types of transformers
can be used to produce this effect, including multiple coil and inverter machines, with
each using a different method to manipulate the welding current. The multiple coil type
adjusts the current by either varying the number of turns in the coil (in tap-type
transformers) or by varying the distance between the primary and secondary coils
(in movable coil or movable core transformers). Inverters, which are smaller and thus
more portable, use electronic components to change the current characteristics.
Electrical generators and alternators are frequently used as portable welding power
supplies, but because of lower efficiency and greater costs, they are less frequently used
in industry. Maintenance also tends to be more difficult, because of the complexities of
using a combustion engine as a power source. However, in one sense they are simpler:
the use of a separate rectifier is unnecessary because they can provide either AC or DC.
However, the engine driven units are most practical in field work where the welding often
must be done out of doors and in locations where transformer type welders are not usable
because there is no power source available to be transformed.

Electrodes
The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors, including the weld
material, welding position and the desired weld properties. The electrode is coated in a
metal mixture called flux, which gives off gases as it decomposes to prevent weld
contamination, introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld, causes weld-protecting slag to
form, improves the arc stability, and provides alloying elements to improve the weld quality
Electrodes can be divided into three groupsthose designed to melt quickly are called
"fast-fill" electrodes, those designed to solidify quickly are called "fast-freeze" electrodes,
and intermediate electrodes go by the name "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow" electrodes.
Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly so that the welding speed can be
maximized, while fast-freeze electrodes supply filler metal that solidifies quickly, making
welding in a variety of positions possible by preventing the weld pool from shifting
significantly before solidifying.

The composition of the electrode core is generally similar and sometimes identical to that
of the base material. But even though a number of feasible options exist, a slight
difference in alloy composition can strongly impact the properties of the resulting weld.
This is especially true of alloy steels such as HSLA steels. Likewise, electrodes of
compositions similar to those of the base materials are often used for welding nonferrous
materials like aluminum and copper. However, sometimes it is desirable to use
electrodes with core materials significantly different from the base material. For example,
stainless steel electrodes are sometimes used to weld two pieces of carbon steel, and
are often utilized to weld stainless steel workpieces with carbon steel workpieces.

Electrode coatings can consist of a number of different compounds, including rutile,

calcium fluoride, cellulose, and iron powder. Rutile electrodes, coated with
25%45% TiO2, are characterized by ease of use and good appearance of the
resulting weld. However, they create welds with high hydrogen content, encouraging
embrittlement and cracking. Electrodes containing calcium fluoride (CaF2), sometimes
known as basic or low-hydrogen electrodes, are hygroscopic and must be stored in dry
conditions. They produce strong welds, but with a coarse and convex-shaped joint
surface. Electrodes coated with cellulose, especially when combined with rutile, provide
deep weld penetration, but because of their high moisture content, special procedures
must be used to prevent excessive risk of cracking. Finally, iron powder is a common
coating additive, as it improves the productivity of the electrode, sometimes as much
as doubling the yield.

To identify different electrodes, the American Welding Society established a system that
assigns electrodes with a four- or five-digit number. Covered electrodes made of mild or
low alloy steel carry the prefix E, followed by their number. The first two or three digits of
the number specify the tensile strength of the weld metal, in thousand
pounds per square inch (ksi). The penultimate digit generally identifies the welding
positions permissible with the electrode, typically using the values 1 (normally fast-freeze
electrodes, implying all position welding) and 2 (normally fast-fill electrodes, implying
horizontal welding only). The welding current and type of electrode covering are specified
by the last two digits together. When applicable, a suffix is used to denote the alloying
element being contributed by the electrode.

Common electrodes include the E6010, a fast-freeze, all-position electrode with a

minimum tensile strength of 60 ksi (410 MPa) which is operated using DCEP. Its cousin
E6011 is similar except that it is used with alternating current. E7024 is a fast-fill electrode,
used primarily to make flat or horizontal welds using AC, DCEN, or DCEP. Examples of
fill-freeze electrodes are the E6012, E6013, and E7014, all of which provide a compromise
between fast welding speeds and all-position welding.

Variations of the Process

Though SMAW is almost exclusively a manual arc welding process, one notable process
variation exists, known as gravity welding or gravity arc welding. It serves as an
automated version of the traditional shielded metal arc welding process, employing an
electrode holder attached to an inclined bar along the length of the weld. Once started,
the process continues until the electrode is spent, allowing the operator to manage
multiple gravity welding systems. The electrodes employed (often E6027 or E7024) are
coated heavily in flux, and are typically 28 in (0.8 m) in length and about 0.25 in (6 mm)
thick. As in manual SMAW, a constant current welding power supply is used, with either
negative polarity direct current or alternating current.
Due to a rise in the use of semiautomatic welding processes such as
flux-cored arc welding, the popularity of gravity welding has fallen as its economic
advantage over such methods is often minimal. Other SMAW-related methods that are
even less frequently used include firecracker welding, an automatic method for making
butt and fillet welds, and massive electrode welding, a process for welding large
components or structures that can deposit up to 60 lb (27 kg) of weld metal per hour.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

he Belgian artist Hubert Minnebo during

he TIG welding of a monumental bronze
culpture.

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas
(TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a nonconsumable
tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas (usually an inert gas such as
argon), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding power supply
produces energy which is conducted across the arc through a column of
highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma.

GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and
light metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process
grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing procedures
such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for
stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW is comparatively more
complex and difficult to master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower
than most other welding techniques. A related process, plasma arc welding,
uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc
and as a result is often automated.

Gas tungsten arc welding produces exceptionally clean welds no slag is

produced, the chance inclusions in the weld metal is and the finished weld
requires virtually no cleaning.
Argon and Helium, the primary shielding gases employed, are inert gases.
Inert gases
do not chemically combine with other elements and therefore, are used to
exclude
the reactive gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen, from forming compounds
that could
be detrimental to the weld metal.
Gas tungsten arc welding may be used for welding almost all metals mild
steel,
low alloys, stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, aluminum and aluminum
alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, magnesium and magnesium alloys, titanium,
and others. This process is most extensively used for welding aluminum and
stainless steel alloys where weld integrity is of the utmost importance.
Another use is for the root pass (initial pass) in pipe welding, which requires a

Gas tungsten arc welding lends itself to both manual and automatic
operation. In
manual operation, the welder holds the torch in one hand and directs the arc
into the weld joint.
The filler metal is fed manually into the leading edge of the puddle. In
automatic applications, the torch may be automatically moved over a
stationary work piece or the torch may be stationary with the work moved or
rotated in relation to the torch. Filler metal, if required, is also fed
automatically.

Power Sources - Both AC and DC power sources are used in gas tungsten
arc
welding. They are the constant current type with a drooping volt-ampere
curve. This type of power source produces very slight changes in the arc
current when the arc length (voltage) is varied.
The choice between an AC or DC welder depends on the type and thickness
of the
metal to be welded. Distinct differences exist between AC and DC arc
characteristics, and if DC is chosen, the polarity also becomes an important
factor. The effects of polarity in GTAW are directly opposite the effects of
polarity in SMAW.
In SMAW, the distribution of heat between the electrode and work, which
determines the penetration and weld bead width, is controlled mainly by the
ingredients in the
flux coating on the electrode. In GTAW where no flux coating exists, heat
distribution between the electrode and the work is controlled solely by the

Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is produced when the

electrode is
connected to the negative terminal of the power source. Since the electrons
flow from the electrode to the plate, approximately 70% of the heat of the arc
is concentrated at the work, and approximately 30% at the electrode end.
This allows the use of smaller tungsten electrodes that produce a relatively
narrow concentrated arc. The weld shape has deep penetration and is quite
narrow. See Figure below.
Direct current electrode negative is suitable for welding most metals.
Magnesium and aluminum have a refractory oxide coating on the surface that
must be physically removed immediately prior to welding if DCEN is to be
used.

Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) is produced when the electrode

is
connected to the positive terminal of the welding power source. In this
condition, the electrons flow from the work to the electrode tip, concentrating
approximately 70% of the heat of the arc at the electrode and 30% at the
work. This higher heat at the electrode necessitates using larger diameter
tungsten to prevent it from melting and contaminating the weld metal. Since
the electrode diameter is larger and the heat is less concentrated at the
work, the resultant weld bead is relatively wide and shallow. See figure below.

Aluminum and magnesium are two metals that have a heavy oxide coating
that acts
as an insulator and must be removed before successful welding can take
place. Welding with electrode positive provides a good oxide cleaning action
in the arc. If we were to study the physics of the welding arc, we find that the
electric current causes the shielding gas atoms to lose some of their
electrons. Since electrons are negatively charged, these gas atoms now are
unbalanced and have an excessive positive charge.
Unlike charges attract. These positively charged atoms (or positive ions as
they are known in chemical terminology) are attracted to the negative pole,
in this case the work, at high velocity. Upon striking the work surface, they
dislodge the oxide coating permitting good electrical conductivity for the
maintenance of the arc, and eliminate the impurities in the weld metal that
could be caused by these oxides.

Direct current electrode positive is rarely used in gas-tungsten arc welding.

Despite
the excellent oxide cleaning action, the lower heat input in the weld area
makes it a slow process, and in metals having higher thermal conductivity,
the heat is rapidly conducted away from the weld zone. When used, DCEP
is restricted to welding thin sections (under 1/8") of magnesium and
aluminum.

Alternating current is actually a combination of DCEN and DCEP and is

widely
used for welding aluminum. In a sense, the advantages of both DC processes
are combined, and the weld bead produced is a compromise of the two.
Remember that when welding with 60 Hz current, the electron flow from the
electrode tip to the work reverses direction 120 times every second. Thereby,
the intense heat alternates from electrode to work piece, allowing the use of
an intermediate size electrode. The weld bead is a compromise having
medium penetration and bead width. The gas ions blast the oxides from the
surface of aluminum and magnesium during the positive half cycle.

DC constant current power sources - Constant current power sources,

used for
shielded metal arc welding, may also be used for gas-tungsten arc welding. In
applications where weld integrity is not of utmost importance, these power
sources will suffice. With machines of this type, the arc must be initiated by
touching the tungsten electrode to the work and quickly withdrawing it to
maintain the proper arc length. This starting method contaminates the
electrode and blunts the point which has been grounded on the electrode
end. These conditions can cause weld metal inclusions and poor arc direction.
Using a power source designed for gas tungsten arc welding with a high
frequency stabilizer will eliminate this problem. The electrode need not be
touched to the work for arc initiation.
Instead, the high frequency voltage, at very low current, is superimposed
onto the welding current. When the electrode is brought to within
approximately 1/8 inch of the base metal, the high frequency ionizes the gas
path, making it conductive and a welding arc is established. The high
frequency is automatically turned off immediately after arc initiation when
using direct current.

Argon and helium are the major shielding gases used in gas tungsten arc
welding. In some applications, mixtures of the two gases prove
advantageous.
To a lesser extent, hydrogen is mixed with argon or helium for special
applications.
Argon and helium are colorless, odorless, tasteless and nontoxic gases. Both
are
inert gases, which means that they do not readily combine with other
elements. They will not burn nor support combustion. Commercial grades
used for welding are 99.99% pure. Argon is .38% heavier than air and about
10 times heavier than helium. Both gases ionize when present in an electric
arc. This means that the gas atoms lose some of their electrons that have a
negative charge. These unbalanced gas atoms, properly called positive ions,
now have a positive charge and are attracted to the negative pole in the arc.
When the arc is positive and the work is negative, these positive ions impinge

Argon is most commonly used of the shielding gases. Excellent arc starting
and
ease of use make it most desirable for manual welding.
Argon produces a better cleaning action when welding aluminum and
magnesium with alternating current. The arc produced is relatively narrow.
Argon is more suitable for welding thinner material.
At equal amperage, helium produces a higher arc voltage than argon. Since
welding heat is the product of volts times amperes, helium produces more
available heat at the arc. This makes it more suitable for welding heavy
sections of metal that have high heat conductivity, or for automatic welding
operations where higher welding speeds are required.
Argon-helium gas mixtures are used in applications where higher heat input
and the
desirable characteristics of argon are required. Argon, being a relatively
heavy gas, blankets the weld area at lower flow rates. Argon is preferred for
many applications because it costs less than helium.

Electrodes - Electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding are available in

diameters
from .010" to 1/4" in diameter and standard lengths range from 3" to 24".
The most commonly used sizes, however, are the .040", 1/16", 3/32", and
1/8" diameters.
The shape of the tip of the electrode is an important factor in gas tungsten
arc
welding. When welding with DCEN, the tip must be ground to a point. The
angle at which the tip is ground varies with the application, the electrode
diameter, and the welding current. Narrow joints require a relatively small
angle. When welding very thin
material at low currents, a needlelike point ground onto the smallest
available electrode may be necessary to stabilize the arc. Properly ground
electrodes will assure easy arc starting, good arc stability, and proper bead
width.
When welding with AC, grinding the electrode tip is not necessary. When

1) Pure Tungsten (AWS EWP) Color Code: Green

Used for less critical applications. The cost is low and they give good results
at
relatively low currents on a variety of metals. Most stable arc when used on
AC, either
balanced wave or continuous high frequency.
2) 1% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-1) Color Code: Yellow
Good current carrying capacity, easy arc starting and provide a stable arc.
Less
susceptible to contamination. Designed for DC applications of nonferrous
materials.
3) 2% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-2) Color Code: Red
Longer life than 1% Thoriated electrodes. Maintain the pointed end longer,
used for
light gauge critical welds in aircraft work. Like 1%, designed for DC
applications for
nonferrous materials.
4) .5% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-3) Color Code: Blue
Sometimes called "striped" electrode because it has 1.0-2.0% Thoria inserted
in a
wedge-shaped groove throughout its length. Combines the good properties of

Summary - Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is one of the major welding processes
today. The quality of the welds produced and the ability to weld very thin
metals are the major features. The weld metal quality is high since no flux is
used, eliminating the problem of slag inclusions in the weld metal. It is used
extensively in the aircraft and aerospace industry, where high quality welds
are necessary and also for welding the more expensive metals where the
weld defects become very costly. Metals as thin as .005" can be welded due
to the ease of controlling the current.
The major disadvantages of the process are that it is slower than welding
with
consumable electrodes and is little used on thicknesses over 1/4" for this
reason. Shielding gas and tungsten electrode costs make the process
relatively expensive.