PERAN GEN DALAM

PERKEMBANGAN

 Para peneliti mengklon hewan

melalui transplantasi inti
Inti sel telur digantikan oleh inti sel somatik
dewasa

Sejauh ini, kloning pada manusia belum

berhasil hingga menghasilkan embrio kurang
dari 6 sel
Perkembangan embrio ditentukan oleh ekspresi
gen

 Dalam reproduksi eukariota secara kloning,

embrio diimplantasikan di induknya

Untuk terapi, kloning dihasilkan dari stem sel

embrionik
Stem cells can help patients with damaged
tissues

Donor
cell
Nucleus from
donor cell

Remove
nucleus
from egg
cell

Add somatic
cell from
adult donor

Implant blastocyst
in surrogate mother

Clone of donor
is born
(REPRODUCTIVE
cloning)

Remove embryonic
stem cells from
blastocyst and
grow in culture

Induce stem
cells to form
specialized cells
for THERAPEUTIC
use

Grow in culture to produce

an early embryo (blastocyst)

GENE REGULATION IN
PROKARYOTES

Interaksi protein dan DNA pada gen prokariotik:

on-off tergantung pada respon perubahan
lingkungan

Aliran informasi genetik

dari gen ke protein disebut
dengan ekspresi gen
Penjelasan awalnya
menggunakan pengaturan
gene dari bakteri E. coli

 Pada prokariot, gen berperan sebagai enzim,

pengaturannya secara bersama menjadi unit
pengaturan yang disebut operon

Pengaturan pengikatan protein yang

mengontrol urutan DNA dan on-off kerja operon
diatur oleh perubahan lingkungan

 Operon lac akan menghasilkan enzim untuk mengurai

laktose jika ada laktose
OPERON
Regulatory
gene

Promoter Operator

Lactose-utilization genes

DNA
mRNA
RNA polymerase
cannot attach to
promoter

Active
repressor

Protein

OPERON TURNED OFF (lactose absent)

DNA

RNA polymerase
bound to promoter

mRNA
Protein
Lactose

Inactive
repressor

Enzymes for lactose utilization

OPERON TURNED ON (lactose inactivates repressor)

 Dua tipe repressor yang dikontrol oleh operon

Promoter

Operator

Genes

DNA
Active
repressor

Active
repressor
Tryptophan

Inactive
repressor

Inactive
repressor
Lactose
lac OPERON

trp OPERON

Diferensiasi sel dan kloning eukariota

Pada eukariota, sel menjadi spesifik seperti zigot
berkembang menjadi organisme
Tipe sel yang berbeda menyebabkan perbedaan
macam protein penyusunnya
Perbedaan kombinasi gen penyusun protein: aktif
setiap tipe sel

 An overview of cellular respiration

Electrons carried
via NADH and
FADH2

Electrons
carried
via NADH

Citric
acid
cycle

Glycolsis
Pyruvate

Glucose

Cytosol

Mitochondrion

ATP
Figure 9.6

Oxidative
phosphorylation:
electron transport
and
chemiosmosis

Substrate-level
phosphorylation

ATP
Substrate-level
phosphorylation

ATP
Oxidative
phosphorylation

1
When blood glucose
level rises, a gland called
the pancreas secretes insulin,
a hormone, into the blood.

2
Insulin enhances the
transport of glucose into body
cells and stimulates the liver
and muscle cells to store
glucose as glycogen. As a
result, blood glucose level
drops.
STIMULUS:
Blood glucose
level rises
after eating.

Homeostasis:
90 mg glucose/
100 mL blood

4
Glucagon promotes
the breakdown of
glycogen in the
liver and the
release of glucose
into the blood,
increasing blood
glucose level.

STIMULUS:
Blood glucose
level drops
below set point.
3
When blood glucose
level drops, the pancreas
secretes the hormone
glucagon, which opposes
the effect of insulin.

 Awal eksperimen: transplantasi inti sel hewan (katak)

Kloning larva katak: inti sel somatik berpotensi genetik dan
berkembang menjadi embrio selanjutnya larva katak
Tadpole (frog larva)

Frog egg cell

Nucleus
UV

Intestinal cell
Nucleus

Transplantation
of nucleus

Eight-cell
embryo

Nucleus
destroyed

Tadpole

 The first mammalian

clone, a sheep named
Dolly, was produced in
1997
Dolly provided further
evidence for the
developmental
potential of cell nuclei

Reproductive cloning of nonhuman mammals has applications

in basic research, agriculture, and medicine
Scientists clone farm
animals with specific
sets of desirable traits
Piglet clones might
someday provide a
source of organs for
human transplant

stem sel dapat diperbanyak dan dapat digunakan untuk

terapi setelah mengalami diferensiasi sel
Stem sel dewasa dapat di kultur dan mengalami
diferensiasi
Diferensiasi sel dipengaruhi oleh perubahan media
kultur

 Differentiation of embryonic stem cells in culture

Liver cells

Cultured
embryonic
stem cells

Nerve cells

Heart muscle cells

Different culture
conditions

Different types of
differentiated cells

GENE REGULATION IN
EUKARYOTES

DNA packing in eukaryotic chromosomes helps regulate

gene expression
A chromosome contains a DNA double helix
wound around clusters of histone proteins
DNA packing tends to block gene expression

DNA
double
helix
(2-nm
diameter)
Histones
Beads on
a string

Nucleosome
(10-nm diameter)

Tight helical fiber

(30-nm diameter)

Supercoil
(200-nm diameter)

700
nm
Metaphase chromosome

In female mammals, one X chromosome is inactive in each cell

An extreme example of DNA packing in interphase cells is X
chromosome inactivation

EARLY EMBRYO

TWO CELL POPULATIONS

IN ADULT
Cell division
and
X chromosome
inactivation

X chromosomes

Allele for
orange fur
Allele for
black fur

Active X
Inactive X

Inactive X
Active X

Orange fur

Black fur

Chromosome
DNA unpacking
Other changes
to DNA
GENE
TRANSCRIPTION

GENE
Exon

RNA transcript
Intron

Addition of
cap and tail
Splicing

Tail
Cap

mRNA in nucleus

NUCLEUS

Flow
through
nuclear envelope
mRNA in cytoplasm

CYTOPLASM
Breakdown of mRNA
Translation

Broken-down mRNA

Polypeptide

Cleavage/modification/
activation
ACTIVE PROTEIN
Breakdown
of protein
Broken-down protein

The Control of Gene

Expression

 Mutant fruit flies show

the relationship
between gene
expression and
development
Some mutants have
legs where antennae
should be

Eye

Antenna

Head of a normal fruit fly

Leg
Head of a developmental mutant

 Development of head-tail polarity in fruit fly

EGG CELL
WITHIN
OVARIAN
FOLLICLE

Egg cell
Egg protein
signaling
follicle cells

1
Follicle
cells

Gene expression in
follicle cells
Follicle cell
protein signaling
egg cell
Localization of
head mRNA

3
Head
mRNA

ZYGOTE

FERTILIZATION
AND MITOSIS

EMBRYO

Translation of
head mRNA
Gradient of
regulatory
protein

4
Gene
expression
5

Gene
expression

Gradient of
certain other
proteins

Body
segments

EMBRYO
Body
segments
6

LARVA

Gene expression

ADULT FLY
7

Head end

Tail end

SIGNALING CELL

A signal-transduction
pathway that turns on a gene

1
2

TARGET CELL

(1) The signaling cell secretes

the signal molecule
(2) The signal molecule binds
to a receptor protein in the
target cells plasma
membrane

Signal
molecule
Receptor
protein

Plasma
membrane

SIGNALING CELL

Signal
molecule

(3) Binding activates the first

relay protein, which then
activates the next relay
protein, etc.

Plasma
membrane

3
TARGET CELL
Relay
proteins

Transcription factor
(activated)

(4) The last relay protein

activates a transcription
factor

Receptor
protein

SIGNALING CELL

Signal
molecule

(5) The transcription factor

triggers transcription of a
specific gene

Receptor
protein

Plasma
membrane

3
TARGET CELL
Relay
proteins

Transcription factor
(activated)

(6) Translation of the mRNA

produces a protein

NUCLEUS
DNA

5
mRNA

Transcription
New
protein

6
Translation

1. Gen merupakan materi genetik yang

dapat diturunkan pada keturunannya
2. Plasmid adalah bakteri ekstrakromosomal yang dapat bereplikasi
3. Gen yang terdapat dibagian intron
dapat diterjemahkan dalam proses
transkripsi
4. Urutan sintesis protein dimulai dari
replikasi DNA, transkripsi, dan translasi
5. Ekspresi gen diaktifkan oleh adanya
perubahan lingkungan
6. Transplantasi inti sel dewasa pada sel
telur, maka sel telur dapat berkembang
menjadi embrio

1. Perbanyakan sel (kloning) dapat

dilakukan dengan transformasi inti sel
somatik
2. Plasmid adalah protein ekstrakromosomal yang dapat bereplikasi dan
dapat ditemukan pada sel hidup
3. Transkripsi untuk menghasilkan protein
terjadi di sitoplasma sel
4. Gen yang terdapat dibagian ekson dapat
diterjemahkan dalam proses transkripsi
5. Pengaturan gen ditentukan oleh interaksi
hubungan sel ke sel
6. Stem sel dewasa dapat di kultur dan
mengalami diferensiasi

KEY
A
1. B
2. S (DNA)
3. S (akson)
4. B
5. B
6.B

B
1. S (transplantasi)
2. S (DNA)
3. S (inti)
4. B
5. B
6.B