TOPIC 10:

ACTION RESEARCH
DATA COLLECTION
CONSIDERATIONS

I DONT JUST WANT TO

RESEARCH SOMETHING I WANT TO MAKE A
DIFFERENCE (O'LEARY, Z. 2004)

What do we need?

What do we need?

Research efforts that go beyond

explaining specific phenomena
Research that enacts change
Research results that can be
immediately applied
Researchers as problem solvers

Data Collection
Considerations

Topics to be covered:

Sampling and bias

Validity

- Data triangulation
- Analysis-check by research
participant

Reliability
Ethics

What is a population?

A population is a group of individual

persons, objects, or items from which
samples are taken for measurement for
example a population of presidents or
professors, books or students.

Sampling

A sample is a smaller (but hopefully

representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about
that population (Field, 2005)

A sample is a finite part of a statistical

population whose properties are studied to
gain information about the whole(Webster,
1985). When dealing with people, it can
be defined as a set of respondents(people)
selected from a larger population for the
purpose of a survey.

What is sampling?

Sampling is the act, process, or

technique of selecting a suitable sample,
or a representative part of a population
for the purpose of determining
parameters or characteristics of the
whole population.

Why sample?

To overcome constraints in:

Cost - time, money

Workload
Stress
Administrative support
Number of researchers
Resources

To get:

Results with known accuracy that can be

calculated mathematically

What is the purpose of

sampling?

To draw conclusions about populations from

samples, we must use inferential statistics
which enables us to determine a population`s
characteristics by directly observing only a
portion (or sample) of the population.
To obtain a sample rather than a complete
enumeration (a census ) of the population for
many reasons
Obviously, it is cheaper to observe a part
rather than the whole.

Sampling Frame

The sampling frame is the list from

which the potential respondents are
drawn.

-Registrars office
-Class rosters
- Class list

Sample Errors

no matter how thorough and proficient the

researcher is sampling bias or error is
inevitable
Arlene Fink: 1995
Sampling error may be defined as the error
that results from taking one sample instead of
examining the whole population. Lohr simply
defines several types of sample errors as
undercoverage, nonresponse, and sloppiness in
data collection
Lohr:1999

Sample Errors

Undercoverage refers to selecting a sample

that is not large enough. The error here is that
the information gathered from a small sample
is not representative of the population and
cannot be generalized to that population.
Researchers should keep in mind that an
increase in sample size and an increased
homogeneity of the elements being sampled
allow for the reduction of sampling error.
(Babbie 1990).

Sampling

What is your population of

interest?

To whom do you want to generalize

your results?

Can you sample the entire population?

Key factors in sampling:

the sample size

representativeness and parameters of
the sample
access to the sample
the sampling strategy to be used.

Types of Samples

Probability (Random) Samples

Simple random sample

Systematic random sample
Stratified random sample

Proportionate
Disproportionate

Cluster sample

Non-Probability Samples

Convenience sample
Purposive sample
Quota

Probability (Random)
Samples
Simple random sample
-the probability is the same for all population
members to be taken as a sample.

Systematic random sample

-Use when it is difficult to identify items using a
simple random sampling method (with random
numbers).

Use when it is easier to select every nth item.

Non-Probability Samples
Convenience sample
-subjects are selected because of their convenient
accessibility and proximity to the researcher.

Purposive sample
-The researcher chooses the sample based on who
they think would be appropriate for the study.

Quota
-the selection of a portion of the population being
studied

Tutorial 1

Divide yourself into 7 groups

Search on the different types of research
sampling. Each group is to take one
type. Note the key ideas of the type of
research sampling.
Put them on mahjong paper for a gallery
walk activity.

Sample size

Sample size might also be

constrained by cost in terms of
time, money, stress, administrative
support, the number of researchers,
and resources.

Bias and Error

Bias and Error

Systematic Error or Bias: unknown or

unacknowledged error created during
the design, measurement, sampling,
procedure, or choice of problem studied

Error tends to go in one direction

Examples:

Selection, Recall, Social desirability

Random

Unrelated to true measures

Example:

Momentary fatigue

Bias - Definition

Is defined as the result of a systematic error in

the design or conduct of a study. Results from:

Flaws in the method of selection of study

participants
Procedures for gathering relevant exposure and/or
disease information

Most biases related to study design and

procedures can be classified into:

Selection bias
Information bias

Information bias

A systematic tendency for individuals

selected for inclusion in the study to be
erroneously placed in different
categories (misclassification)

Selection bias

Systematic error in the ascertainment of

study subjects

Recall bias

When recall of past exposure error

differs between cases and controls
Methods to prevent recall bias

Review of other documentation

Using proxy respondents (friends,
colleagues, spouse, parent, etc)
Using biological markers

Defining Error and Bias

Error can be defined as any difference

between the average values that were
obtained through a study and the true
average values of the population being
targeted.
Simply put, error describes how much the
results of a study missed the mark, by
encompassing all the flaws in a research
study.
Error makes up all flaws in a studys results

Defining Error and Bias

Bias refers only to error that is systematic in

nature. Research is bias when it is gathered in a
way that makes the datas value systematically
different from the true value of the population of
interest.
Survey research includes an incredible spectrum
of different types of bias, including researcher
bias, survey bias, respondent bias, and
nonresponse bias.
Whether it is in the selection process, the way
questions are written, or the respondents desire
to answer in a certain way, bias can be found in
almost any survey.

Tutorial 2

Read the article by Rick Penwarden on

How to Avoid Nonresponse Error
and create a graphic organiser to
summarise key ideas.
Present and share

Validity & Reliability

Validity

the extent to
which a measure,
indicator or method
of data collection
possesses the
quality of being
sound or true as far
as can be judged..

Reliability

Reliability is,
literally, the extent
to which we can rely
on the source of the
data and, therefore,
the data itself.
Reliable data is
dependable,
trustworthy, unfailing,
sure, authentic,
genuine, reputable.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability

Validity
The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed
to measure
A subjective judgment made on the basis of experience
and empirical indicators
Asks "Is the test measuring what you think its
measuring?
Affected by systematic error/bias
Note: In order to be valid, a test must be reliable; but
reliability does not guarantee validity.

The extent to which a test is repeatable and yields

consistent scores
Affected by random error/bias

Data Triangulation

It is generally accepted in action

research that researchers should not
rely on any single source of data,
interview, observation, or instrument
(Mills, 2003, p. 52)
In research terms, this desire to use
multiple sources of data is referred to as
triangulation. ( Mills, 2003, p. 52)

So, how do you triangulate?

Triangulation is the process of corroborating

evidence from different individuals (e.g. a
principal and a student), types of data (e.g.
observational fieldnotes and interviews), or
methods of data collection (e.g., documents
and interviews) in descriptions and themes
in qualitative research.
The inquirer examines each information
source and finds evidence to support a
theme.

Analysis-check by research
participant

Also referred to as member checking

Researcher asks one or more
participants in the study to check the
accuracy of the account

Take the findings back to the participants

and asking them (in writing or in an
interview) about the accuracy of the report

Ethics

Because action research is carried out in

real-world circumstances, and involves
close and open communication among
the people involved, the researchers
must pay close attention to ethical
considerations in the conduct of their
work.

Richard Winter (1996) lists a

number of principles:

Make sure that the relevant persons, committees and

authorities have been consulted, and that the principles
guiding the work are accepted in advance by all.
All participants must be allowed to influence the work,
and the wishes of those who do not wish to participate
must be respected.
The development of the work must remain visible and
open to suggestions from others.
Permission must be obtained before making
observations or examining documents produced for
other purposes.
Descriptions of others work and points of view must be
negotiated with those concerned before being
published.
The researcher must accept responsibility for
maintaining confidentiality.

Doing Your Own Action

Research

Small Group Discussion:

What is a problem area, issue or concern in
your
classroom or school?
How might you obtain more information?
Observing (passively or as a participant)
Interviews (informal or structured)
Questionnaires, checklists, attitude scales
Standardized tests and educational
assessments
Student records, recorded conversations

The End, thank you.