NDT

MODULE 3

SYLLABUS
Ultrasonic Testing (UT): principle, types of waves, frequency, velocity,
wavelength, reflection, divergence, attenuation, mode conversion in
ultrasonic UT testing methods - contact testing and immersion testing,
normal beam and straight beam testing, angle beam testing, dual crystal
probe,

ultrasonic

testing

techniques

resonance

testing,

through

transmission technique, pulse echo testing technique, instruments used UT,

accessories such as transducers, types, frequencies, and sizes commonly
used, reference blocks wit artificially created defects, calibration of
equipment, applications, advantages, limitations, A, B and C scan - Time of
Flight Diffraction (TOFD).

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

WHAT IS ULTRASONIC
TESTING?
Ultrasonic testing is one of the NDT methods to find out the condition of
elastic materials by means of injecting mechanical vibrations into the
materials.
This method is capable of detecting surface, subsurface and internal
discontinuities on materials
Sounds below approximately 16 Hz are below the limit of human hearing
and are called subsonic vibrations, and sounds above approximately
20,000 Hz are too high to be heard and are called ultrasonic vibrations.
Between those two values, is the audible range.
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ULTRASONIC TESTINGPRINCIPLE
GENERAL
Ultrasonic waves are send
through the material by means of transducers
If there is any discontinuity in the path of the propagation, the material

would change or modify the waves that can be viewed in the form of
indication , through a testing system.
It is based on the fact that solid materials are good conductors of sound

waves. Whereby the waves are not only reflected at the interfaces but
also by internal flaws.
Obeys the laws of optics
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TYPES OF WAVESCOMPRESSION WAVES

Compression waves can be defined on this basis as waves in which
the particle motion is in the same direction of wave propagation.
Also called as longitudinal wave.
Longitudinal velocity is given by ,

Where,

E is the modulus of elasticity

is the poissons ratio
is the density of the material.

Properties
Easily generated
Travels Through all media
Highest velocity compared to other types of waves.

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TYPES OF WAVES- SHEAR

WAVES
Shear waves can be defined on this basis as waves in which the particle
motion is in the perpendicular direction of the wave propagation.
Where,

Also called as transverse waves or torsional waves.

Transverse velocity is given by ,

Properties

E is the modulus of elasticity

G is the modulus of rigidity
is the poissons ratio
is the density of the material.

Velocity approximately half of the longitudinal wave.

Travels through only solid media

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TYPES OF WAVES- SURFACE

WAVES
These
are waves in which the particle motion generally follows an elliptical orbit.

First explained by Lord Rayleigh. Hence these waves are also called as Rayleigh
waves.
Surface wave velocity is given by ,
Properties
Less attenuation compared to other two waves.
Maximum depth of penetration is one wave length beneath the surface.
Travels along flat or curved surfaces of relatively thick solid specimens.
For propagation material should be free from oil, grease and loose scales.
It wont exist in solid immersed in liquid.
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TYPES OF WAVES- PLATE

WAVES
These are waves in which the particle vibration is very complex throughout
the thickness of the material.
Also called as Lamb waves or Guided waves.
Surface wave velocity is given by ,
Properties
Produced in thin sheets
Velocity is dependent on frequency, thickness and modulus of elasticity.
Used for testing thin plates, laminations, etc.

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMPORTANT TERMS
TIME PERIOD, T

Time taken by a vibrating body to complete one cycle.

FREQUENCY
No. of cycles or oscillations made per second
VELOCITY, V
Distance a wave will propagate through a medium in a given time.

WAVE LENGTH ,
Distance between two neighboring points having the same phase
REFLECTION
At an interface, a proportion of the sound may be transmitted to the next medium and the remainder reflected back
to the first medium
Where, Z is the acoustic impedance and is given by
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMPORTANT TERMS
ATTENUATION

A gradual loss of sound energy

It is the combined effect of a number of parameters:
Interference and diffraction effects
Interference Absorption (friction and heat)
Interference Scatter
Interference Beam spread
DIVERGENCE
REFRACTION
Where
i is the angle of incidence
r is the angle of refraction
is the velocity of sound in medium 1
is the velocity of sound in medium 2
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMPORTANT TERMS
MODE CONVERSION

As the beam of sound is introduced at an angle of incidence to a solid,

another phenomenon begins to arise, and that is mode conversion.
Although the incident beam is a compression wave, a refracted shear wave
begins to develop in the solid as the sound crosses the interface, in addition
to the refracted compression wave.
For small angles of incidence, the amplitude of the shear wave is small and
can be ignored, but as the angle of incidence increases, the amplitude of
the shear wave also increases.
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMPORTANT TERMS
Couplants

If a transducer is simply placed on a part there must be an air gap.

A solid to air interface creates 100% reflection, so the sound goes straight back into
the transducer without transmitting into the metal.
To overcome this problem there has to be some way to exclude the air using a
medium that will match the acoustic impedance of the transducer to the metal.
Since this medium must also allow the transducer to be scanned over the surface of
the metal it needs to be a liquid, grease, or paste. Such a substance is called a
couplant.
Commonly used couplants are:

Water
Kerosene
Oil
Grease

Wallpaper paste

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ULTRASONIC TESTING
METHODS
Contact testing
Immersion testing
Normal beam testing
Straight beam testing
Angle beam testing
Dual crystal probe

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CONTACT TESTING
In contact testing (shown on the previous slides)
a couplant such as water, oil or a gel is applied
between the transducer and the part.

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMMERSION TESTING
In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in a water
bath. This arrangement allows better movement of the transducer while
maintaining consistent coupling.
With immersion testing, an echo from the front surface of the part is seen
in the signal but otherwise signal interpretation is the same for the two
techniques.

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NORMAL & STRAIGHT BEAM

TESTING
Employed to find the cracks parallel to the surface of a test piece

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ANGLE BEAM TESTING

In angle beam testing, the sound beam is introduced into the test article at
some angle other than 90.

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DUAL CRYSTAL PROBE

TESTING METHOD
Transducers that incorporate separate elements for transmission and
reception of the ultra- sonic energy are referred to as dual transducers or
dual crystal probes

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ULTRASONIC TESTING
TECHNIQUE
Resonance testing
Pulse echo testing
Through transmission testing

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

RESONANCE TESTING
TECHNIQUE
Each component has its own resonant frequencies (eg : ringing of bell, wine
glass)
The tones of the ringing depends on size, material of the component.
Earlier people have been inspecting materials by hitting them with a hammer
and listening to them.
Computers and modern electronics enabled us to take the human element out
of the inspection process.
It operates by exciting the component with a sine wave.
It then sweeps all of the individual frequencies through the required test
range.
It improves the detectability of inspection compared to the old hammer
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
method.

PULSE-ECHO TESTING
TECHNIQUE

In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy and the

same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy (an echo).
Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the surfaces of
the test article.
The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, which
provides the inspector information about the size and the location of
features that reflect the sound.
The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one side of
the material is possible, and it allows the location of reflectors to be
preciselyFWE
determined.
BWE
crack
echo

0
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

crack
4

10

plate
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

THROUGH TRANSMISSION
TESTING TECHNIQUE

Two transducers located on opposing sides of the test specimen are used.
One transducer acts as a transmitter, the other as a receiver.
Discontinuities in the sound path will result in a partial or total loss of
sound being transmitted and be indicated by a decrease in the received
signal amplitude.
Through transmission is useful in detecting discontinuities that are not
good reflectors, and when signal strength is weak. It does not provide
depth information.

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TRANSDUCERS
Production and detection of ultrasonic waves for inspection
Transducers are kept inside device known as search units or probes
Active element piezo-electric crystal
Pressure applied electric charge is generated
Electric charge is applied crystal mechanically deforms
Crystals used
Quartz
Lithium sulphate
Polarised ceramics

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CONSTRUCTION OF
ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER
Transducer contain piezo-electric crystals, thickness varies with frequency
Mechanical damping by loading transducer with heavy damping slug
Damping slug tungsten powder mixed into an epoxy resin
Crystal, damping slug and electrical contacts are mounted inside suitable housing
Basic consideration in probe design

Solution of a piezo-electric element

Electrode type and configuration
Backing materials and its characteristics
Frontal member if required

Two types of transducers are generally used

Normal beam transducer
Angle beam transducer

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NORMAL PROBE (SINGLE

CRYSTAL)
Longitudinal waves are used
Single transducer acts as transmitter and
receiver
Coated with silver, aluminium or gold for
physical protection and electrical contact
Can be modified as per our requirement of
testing
Beams are normal to the surface straight
beam probes
Frequency used is 0.5 Hz to 25 MHz
Distances upto 10 m can be tested

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DUAL ELEMENT
TRANSDUCER (DUAL PROBE)
Two single transducers are mounted, one act as transmitter and the
other as receiver
Can be kept side by side for direct testing and stacked or tandem
for angle testing
Used to get good near surface resolution with straight beam
scanning
Two crystal elements are used, both slightly inclined towards each
other, and are stuck to relatively long delay path
Constructed for a particular material thickness and using on other
materials wouldnt get us correct result
For thin objects high roof angle
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

For thick objects low roof angle

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DUAL ELEMENT
TRANSDUCER (DUAL PROBE)

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER

(ANGLE PROBE)
Longitudinal wave is converted to transverse wave by means of a
wedge and is used
Commonly used wedge material is methacrylate resin
Constructed in two ways, Perspex edge can be integrated or can be
an attachment
Probes whose angle beams enter at an angle are called angle beam
probes because they transmit and receives at an angle to the
surface
Most standard angle beam probes transmit and receive due to
technical reasons
The wedge is cut at an angle to provide specifically oriented
Sreerag
V, Asst. Prof.
transverse
waves in the part being examined DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER

(ANGLE PROBE)

Commonly used angle probes are 350, 450,

600
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER

(ANGLE PROBE)

Skip
distance: In angle beam testing, the distance along the test surface
from sound entrant point to the point at which the sound returns to the same
surface. It can be considered the top surface distance of a complete vee
path of sound in the test material.
Vee path: The angle beam path in materials starting at the search-unit
examination surface, through the material to the reflecting surface,
continuing to the examination surface in front of the search unit, and
reflecting back along the same path to the search unit. The path is usually
shaped like the letter V.
Vee path
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMMERSION TESTING
TRANSDUCERS (FOCUSED
PROBES)
Used to achieve near surface resolution
No wear plates or water proofing
Suitably ground acoustical lens are attached to
the immersion probes for focusing sound beam
Other frontal members are added to the
transducer like wear plates for added protection
Frontal units are shaped to direct ultrasound
perpendicular to the surface at all points on
curved surface and radii are known are contour
correction lenses
Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ADVANTAGES OF FOCUSED
PROBES
Attached lens increase sensitivity, resolution and reduce metal
noise and effect due to surface roughness
Cylindrical focused transducer focuses the beam to a long narrow
beam making it possible to detect very fine defects
Spherically focused transducers focuses beam to a point, making
the point of maximum intensity move towards transducer, but
shortens the range.

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

REFERENCE BLOCKS

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A- SCAN
Represents the material condition through which the sound beam is
passing.
Doesnt yield information regarding spatial distribution.

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

B- SCAN
Displays a crossectional view of the Workpiece
Arrival of Pulse V/S Transducer position

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

C- SCAN
Displays a plan view of the Workpiece
Uses Raster scan technique.

Sreerag V, Asst. Prof.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING