Liquid Penetrant Testing Introduction

Liquid Penetrant Testing
Lesson 1 - Introduction
One of the oldest method of nondestructive testing
Developed from the oil & whiting process
Can detect minute flaws open to surface
Cracks, laps, porosity, shrinkage areas, laminations
Application
Applied to solids of most metals and nonmetals
Should be essentially non-porous
Products tested
Wrought, cast, powder metallurgy parts, ceramics, plastics,
glass

Lesson 1 - Introduction
Advantages
Essentially simple to apply and control
Equipment
Simple to computer controlled
Procedure establishment of specific parts critical
Does not depend on ferromagnetism
Magnetic and nonmagnetic materials can be tested
Sensitivity can be often greater than MT
Limitations
Only surface-breaking flaws can be detected
Porous and rough surfaces difficult/impossible to test
Excessive background

Lesson 2 Physical Principles
Liquid penetrant seeps into a surface-connected opening due to
liquids capillarity or capillary action.
For effective liquid-penetrant inspection, the penetrant should
1. Wet the surface of a solid work piece or specimen.
2. Form a continuous and reasonable uniform coating.
3. Migrate into cavities that are open to the surface.
The ability of a given liquid to flow over a surface and enter surface
cavities depends principally on the following:
1. Cleanliness of the surface
2. Configuration of the cavity
3. Size of the cavity
4. Surface tension of the liquid
5. Ability of the liquid to wet the surface
6. Contact angle of the liquid

Lesson 2 Physical Principles
Penetrant applied to surface

enters discontinuity by capillary
action
After sufficient time, a blotter is

employed to draw out penetrant
by capillary action
In general, liquid with a high surface tension, low contact angle, and
low viscosity make a good penetrant.
NOTE:
(1) No single property listed above can make a pen good: it is the
combination that makes a good pen.
(2) Viscosity is NOT a factor for capillary action; low viscosity results in
pen entering cavity quicker

Lesson 3 Description of process
Essential 5 steps
Could be more steps depending on system
used
1. Surface Preparation
Thoroughly cleaned and dried
Free from oil, water and contaminants
To include at least 25 mm beyond
area of interest
2. Penetration
Apply uniform layer of pen, to include
12 mm beyond area of interest
Should remain long enough

3. Removal of excess pen
Method of removal depends on
type of pen
Uniform removal important for effective
inspection
Do not over remove (Observe pen not
removed from flaw)
4. Development
Thin and uniform layer of developer
applied
Acts as a blotter to remove pen from flaw
Assists in spreading and magnifying image
Provides a contrast background for easy
visibility

5. Inspection
Carried out after providing
adequate
development time
To be carried out under suitable
environment
White light for visible dye pen
Black light (UV) for
fluorescent dye pen (see pic)

Lesson 4 Penetrant Systems
Three basic systems

Water-washable
Post-emulsifiable
Solvent removable
The principal factors that decide the selection of the
relevant system are:
1. Surface condition of the work metal being
inspected;
2. Characteristics of the defects common to the metal
being inspected;
3. Time and place/position of inspection;
4. Size and quantity of the workpiece to be tested.
8

Two types of pen dye
Visible or color contrast (red in color)
Fluorescent (bright yellowish green under UV light)
Water-washable Pen System
Pen directly washable with water
No requirement of emulsification
Quick and efficient process
Good for rough surfaces
Danger of over-wash

Post-emulsifiable Pen System
Not directly water washable (reduced danger of over wash)
Uses emulsifier prior to rinsing (compare with WW system)
Emulsifier renders excess pen water washable, followed by water
rinse
Emulsification time CRITICAL
Over emulsification will make trapped pen water washable
Despite additional steps, most reliable for detecting minute flaws
Solvent-removable Pen System
Necessary to inspect localized areas, at site (in position)
Solvent & remover usually the same
Portable, convenient, broadens range of application
Labor-intensive & hence expensive
Proper processing can result in very high sensitivity
10

Five essential operations for liquid-penetrant inspection using the
water-washable (WW)system
Operation 1. Cleaning and Drying of surface
Flaw
Surface of work piece
Operation 2. Application of liquid penetrant to surface

Liquid Penetrant
11

Operation 3. Water-wash removal

of liquid penetrant from surface
Developer
Operation 4. Application of
developing agent
12

Operation 5. Inspection
Discontinuity revealed
13

Processing Cycle for Water-washable System
Liquid
Clean
Dry
Dwell
Rinse
Penetrant
Rework
Reject
Dry
Developer
Dry
Nonaqueous
Scrap
Inspect
Develop
Dry
Developer
Aqueous
Clean
Accept
Dry
Developer
14

Operations of the Post-emulsifiable (PE) System
Discontinuity
Surface of work piece
Operation 1 Cleaning & drying

of surface
Penetrant
Operation 2 Application of penetrant
to surface
15

Operation 3 Application of emulsifier to penetrant
Emulsifier
Operation 4 Emulsification of penetrant

Emulsified pen
16

Operation 5 - Water-wash removal of liquid penetrant from surface
Operation 6. Application of developing agent

Developer
17

Operation 7 - Inspection
18

Processing Cycles for Post-Emulsifiable Systems
Liquid
Clean
Dry
Dwell
Emulsify
Rinse
Penetrant
Dry
Rework
Reject
Dry
Developer
Nonaqueous
Scrap
Inspect
Develop
Dry
Developer
Aqueous
Clean
Accept
Dry
Developer
19

Operations for the Solvent-Removable (SR) liquid penetrant system
Operation 1 Cleaning and drying of

surface
Discontinuity
Surface of workpiece
Operation 2 Apply Penetrant
Liquid Penetrant
20

Operation 3. Solvent-cleaner removal of liquid penetrant from surface
Operation 4 Application of developer

Developer
21

Operation 5 - Inspection
22

Processing Cycles for Solvent Removable (SR) Penetrant System
23

Lesson 5 Liquid Penetrant Materials
Almost any liquid will penetrate certain sizes of flaws
Almost any light colored powder can act as developer drawing out
trapped pen
Pen materials used in industry should possess the desired sensitivity
SENSITIVITY is the ability of a system to detect small
discontinuity
Penetrant should have
Great penetrating ability
Potent colored dyes (visible or fluorescent) for high visibility
Pen types
Visible (color contrast)
Fluorescent
A third type called dual sensitivity is also available
24

Both visible and fluorescent pens are available in any of the three systems,
namely
Water-washable, Post-emulsifiable, Solvent removable
Physical & Chemical Characteristics
Chemical stability and uniform physical consistency;
A flashpoint not lower than 60 C (140 F); penetrants that have
lower flash points constitute a potential fire hazard;
A high degree of wettability;
Low viscosity, to permit better coverage and minimum drag out;
Ability to penetrate discontinuities quickly and completely;
Sufficient brightness and permanence of color;
Chemical inertness with materials being inspected and with containers;
Low toxicity, to protect personnel;
Slow drying characteristics;
25

Ease of removal;
An inoffensive odor;
Low cost.
Specifications will require that
Pen materials are used from the same manufacturer
Pen materials are not interchanged between different families even
within the same manufacturer
Halogen (for SS), sulfur (for Ni) contents must be within limits,
else these will affect materials tested
All penetrant liquids are petroleum-based oils
Darkest red shades (for visible) are used for thin-film visibility
Fluorescent dyes absorb UV and emit brilliant yellowish-green
light
26

Emulsifiers
Liquids that render excess oily penetrant waterwashable
Two types
Lipophilic (oil-based)
Hydrophilic (water-based)
Emulsification times depend on emulsifier
Type
Viscosity
Concentration
Method of application
Roughness of workpiece
Lipophilic usually fast acting
27

Lipophilic emulsifiers are contact types (Diffusion)
Hydrophilic emulsifiers could be contact or used with water, by
spraying (detergent action)
Emulsification stops on contact with water
Emulsification times
Follow manufacturers recommendation
For rough surfaces or for critical applications, time is decided
experimentally
Solvent Removers
Petroleum derivatives, volatile
Direct solvent action
Good to remove most petroleum based contaminants
Where open tanks of solvents are used, venting system is a must
28

DEVELOPERS
Function
Draw out pen trapped in cavity
Spread it out
Make available to a minimum thickness, for visibility
Basic types
1. Dry powder
Aqueous
2. Water-suspended
3. Water-soluble
- Non-aqueous
4. Solvent suspended
5. Plastic film
Each type produces different sensitivity for the same pen
29

Rating of sensitivity
Least Dry Powder
Medium Aqueous
Very Good Plastic & Nonaqueous
Required Properties
Must be absorptive, to maximize blotting
Must have fine grain size
Provide a contrast background for indications
Be easy to apply
Must form a thin (or minimum), uniform coating over a surface
Must be nonfluorescent
Must be easy to remove after inspection
Be compatible with materials tested
Be nontoxic
30

Requirements of dry developer
Light & fluffy
Good adhesion to dry metallic surfaces
Should not be hygroscopic, that is absorb moisture
Preferably not float and fill air (dust control equipment usually
required)
Be non-toxic
Wet Developers
Three types
1. Suspension of developer in water (water-suspendible --the
most widely used)
2. Aqueous solutions of suitable salts (water-soluble)
3. Suspensions of powder in volatile solvents (Non-aqueous)
31

Water-based developers are usually available in the dry powder
form
suspensions and solutions are prepared for predetermined
concentrations
Dry powders are conditioned to include
Anti-foaming agents
Dispersing agents
Corrosion inhibitors
Wetting agents
Advantages
Can be used for small to medium-sized objects;
Uniform coverage, on rough surfaces also
Quick & easy to apply
32

Disadvantages
Settling & caking difficult to use unused portion
Messy to handle and apply
Concentration to be checked daily
Baked developer difficult top remove
33

Lesson 6 - Techniques
This lesson addresses techniques used in typical PT

procedures
Surface Preparation or Precleaning
Surface to be tested shall be precleaned of all
contaminants; areas adjacent to area of interest are also
precleaned
Dangers of no/improper precleaning
Penetrant may not enter
Penetrant may lose its ability because contaminant
present
Surface surrounding flaw may contain enough pen
to mask relevant indications
34

Contaminants usually present are:

Water
Rust, scale & loose paint
Residues due to manufacturing processes (including
oil, dirt & grease)
Residues due to previous tests
Coatings applied on the part surface
Various methods of pre-cleaning for liquid-penetrant
inspection
Mechanical Methods
Chemical Methods
Solvent Methods
35

Mechanical Methods
Abrasive tumbling:
Removing light scale burrs, welding flux, braze stopoff, rust,
casting mild and core material. Should not be used on soft
metals such as aluminium, magnesium or titanium
Dry abrasive grit blasting:
Removing light or heavy scale, flux, stopoff, rust, casting mold
and core material, sprayed coatings, carbon deposits - in
general any friable deposit. Can be fixed or portable.
Wet abrasive grit blasting:
Same as dry except, where deposits are light, better surface
and better control of dimensions are required.
Wire brushing:
Removing light deposits of scale, flux and stopoff.
36

High-pressure water and steam:

Ordinarily used with an alkaline cleaner or detergent
Removing typical machine-shop soils such as cutting oils,
polishing compounds, grease, chips, deposits from
electrical discharge machining
Used when surface finish must be maintained. Inexpensive.
Ultrasonic cleaning
Ordinarily used with detergent and water or with a solvent
Removing adherent shop soil from large quantities of small
parts
Notes:
1. Mechanical methods must be selected very carefully to avoid
danger of flaw openings getting closed.
2. Wire brushing, abrasive tumbling are not recommended for soft
metals including Al, Mg, Ti
3. Etching (chemical method) usually follows machining operations,
particularly for soft metals for removing smear
37

Chemical Methods:
Alkaline cleaning
Removing braze stopoff, rust scale, oils, greases, polishing
material, carbon deposits
Ordinarily used on large articles where hand methods are
too laborious. Also used on aluminum for gross metal
removal.
Acid cleaning
Strong solutions for removing heavy scale. Mild
solutions for light scale. Weak (etching) solutions for
removing smeared metal.
Molten salt bath cleaning
Conditioning and removing heavy scale.
38

NOTES:
1. Neutralizing with water is required for almost all chemical
cleaning methods.
2. Drying after neutralizing is necessary.
3. Selection of chemical method depends on type of soil; also
chemicals used must not cause damage to material, surface finish
(where important)
Solvent methods:
Vapor degreasing
Removing typical shop soil, oil, grease. Usually employs
chlorinated solvents; not suitable for titanium.
Solvent wiping
Same as for vapor degreasing except a hand operation. May
employ non-chlorinated solvents. Used for localized low volume
cleaning.
Notes:
1. Vapor degreasing is the most preferred technique for removing
organic contaminants, as well as previously PT tested parts
39

Application of Penetrant
Spraying
Swabbing or brushing
Dipping (Specimens (small, in baskets and big ones, by cranes) may
be dipped into pen tanks)
Dwell time (penetration time)
The minimum time the pen is allowed to remain wet on surface of
test specimen
Duration depend upon
Size and shape of discontinuity anticipated
Usually between 10 minutes (for general apps) to 30 minutes or
more for critical inspection
Temperature of parts and pen
Between 10 C and 50 C
Pen to remain wet on surface throughout dwell time
40

Application of emulsifier
Any method of application OK, except brushing
Dipping is usually preferred
Emulsification time
Time emulsifier is allowed to remain on part
Usually between 1 min to 3 min
Usually determined by experiment
Area tested, at any time, shall be restricted based on time for water
wash after emulsification time
41

Excess Penetrant Removal

After proper dwell time, the excess pen shall be
removed from surface of part, without disturbing the
pen that has entered into a flaw
WW Process
By water rinse
Usually by water spray
Coarse spray
Pressure between 30 40 psi
Sprayed at glancing angle
Temperature of water not exceeding 35 C
PE Process
Removal 2 step process; emulsification & water rinse
42
1.
2.

SR Process
Excess pen removed in following steps
Wipe-off with dry, lint-free cloth till almost all traces of pen is
not seen
Wipe-off with lightly moistened, lint-free cloth till balance

traces of pen is removed
Repeat with dry, lint-free cloth for good results

Notes:
Remove all traces of penetrant seen on surface, including those
outside area of interest
NEVER apply solvent directly on surface of part for excess pen
removal
43

Application of Developers
Dry & nonaqueous developers are applied only after part is dry
The developer coat shall be thin and uniform over area of interest
The coat shall completely cover area of interest
Dry Developer
Dusting
Blowing
Dipping
Nonaqueous wet developer
For best results, spray by a spray gun or from an aerosol can
Shall be thoroughly agitated prior to application
Spray nozzle shall be kept at a distance of 200 300 mm from
surface of part
Apply a thin coat without soaking surface (a translucent coat
provides good results
44

Water-based Developers
Water-suspendible, water-soluble developers are applied
When parts are wet
Dipping, flow-on, spraying
Care to be taken to avoid recesses, dished or hollow surfaces of
part
Drying
After aqueous developers are applied, the part needs to be dried
Drying technique should be such that the surface dries up quick,
but not pen in flaws
Usually an oven with controlled temperature is used
Drying time depends on size & shape of specimen and nature of
discontinuities
45

Lesson 7 Equipment Requirements
Simple equipment usually suffice
Selection of equipment based on
1. No. of workpieces are involved
2. Size and portion of workpieces to be tested
3. Sensitivity required (types of discontinuities to be detected
4. Location of work (shop/field)
Types of units
Package units
Custom-designed units
Portable kits
Lighting
Visible lighting units
Black light
46

Lesson 8 Lighting and lighting requirements
Sources of white light

Sunlight
Fluorescent tubes
Incandescent lamps
Vapor-arc lamps
Illumination and illumination level
Flood lights (general area)
Spot lights (localized spots)
Low intensities result in
Poor sensitivity
Increased inspector fatigue
Low reliability of testing
47

500 lx (lux) on surface of inspection is usually adequate
Critical inspection may require up to 1000 lx.
Black Light
Inspection for fluorescent indications should be done in a darkened
area.
Darker the area of inspection, more brilliant the indications appear,
(particularly important when inspecting for very fine, crack-like
defects which may have trapped only a small amount of penetrant)
Inspection table, darkened area, inspectors hands & dress should
be free of random fluorescent materials to avoid distraction
Dark Adaptation
About 2 minutes
Else will miss indications
48

Eye ball fluorescence
Looking into direct black light
will cause clouding of vision
Safe, when black light is proper
Sources of Black Light
Mercury vapor lamps
Medium pressure lamps
UV lamps with filters that cut out
higher wavelengths & infrared light
Illumination level
~ 1000 W/sq. cm
49

Deterioration of Black-Light Source: The bulb itself will lose output
because of:
Aging;
Discoloration of the cartridge or the outer container.
Collection of dust, dirt, oil on filter glass and external reflectors.
Input voltage fluctuations.
Extending Life of Black-Lights: The user can contribute to lamp life in
two ways.
One of these is to avoid operating lamps above their rated voltage.
Keep the number of starts to as low a figure as possible.
Physiological Effects of Black Lights:
Black light in the wavelength range normally used for inspection
purposes does not permanent damage to persons exposed, so long
as recommended filters are used on the black lights.
50

The black lights are available

100 W model (for spot inspection)
400 W model (for inspection of larger area.
Care:
Keep filters clean
Replace cracked filters promptly
51

Lesson 9 - Quality Control of Penetrant Test Materials
Functional tests of penetrant test materials and systems
Crack sensitivity and washability tests
A desired specimen - usually a production test piece that is
representative of size and surface finish.
It should contain natural defects of the minimum acceptable size.
Penetrant procedures envisaged should be applied on this
representative specimen to evaluate efficacy of the test variables
including the penetrant materials.
Parts used as test samples should be thoroughly cleaned prior to
testing. They should be stored in a suitable solvent between tests.
Aluminum Test Blocks: These provide a good means of evaluating
general purpose penetrants. They should be used for comparisons only
and not for absolute evaluations.
These blocks are about 3/8 thick and 2 X 3 of 2024-T-3 aluminum
material that are heated and quenched to produce an overall crack
pattern. They can also be recracked after careful cleaning. They
usually contain a groove as shown in the following figure.
52

Sensitivity Test:
To compare an unknown penetrant against a standard
sample, the two halves of the blocks are subjected to
the same procedure except that one half is applied with
the standard sample of the penetrant and the other with
the one to be tested. The overall indications are
compared to provide evaluation of the unknown
penetrant.
Meniscus Test:
Used for evaluating the dye concentration in thin liquid
films.
Place a drop of pen betn. flat glass platen and convex
lens. A colorless or non-fluorescent spot is formed
around the point of contact. The diameter of the
remaining spot provides a measure of film thickness
that can be either seen visually or with the aid of
fluorescent lamp. Smaller the diameter of the spot,
better the dye concentration. Penetrants can be also be
compared by measurement of the diameters of the spot.
53

Water Content Test:
Water tolerance of penetrant is an important parameter particularly
in large penetrant test systems where contamination of penetrant is
ever present. ASTM D-95 describes a method where 100 ml of
penetrant is boiled with an equal quantity of moisture-free xylene.
The condensate is collected and measured to show percentage of
water by volume. The manufacturer usually specifies the
maximum water content tolerable.
Viscosity Test
A viscometer is used to measure to the viscosity that should meet a
range specified by the manufacturer. ASTM D- 445 describes a
method to measure the viscosity.
Fluorescent Fade Test
basically checked on aluminium cracked block as a comparison of
fluorescent brilliance of indications produced.
54

Water-washability test:
This test evaluates the efficiency of the emulsifier by comparing
two different percentage blends of penetrant and emulsifier. A
special steel block is placed at a 75o angle and the two blends are
allowed to flow separately down the block. After a 5 minute
waiting period, the block is washed and examined for traces of
remaining penetrant.
Developers
Dry developers are usually visibly inspected to check they are not
lumped or have absorbed moisture. They should be light and
fluffy.
Wet Developers are checked using hydrometer to assure proper
concentration of the powder as specified by the manufacturer.
55

Lesson 10 - Penetrant Test Indications and Interpretation
Indications due to testing may be classified as:
True indications (due to actual discontinuities)
False indications (not due to discontinuities)
True Indications
Relevant (due to unplanned discon)
E.g. porosity, laps, cracks
Nonrelevant (usually due to planned discon)
E.g. Pressure fits, bolted joints
Categories
Continuous line
Intermittent line
Round
Small dots
Diffused or weak
56

Linear indications are those whose length is greater than three times the
width (L > 3W)
Usually rounded indications greater than 3 mm are unacceptable
Always refer to code for acceptance
Distributed porosity of individual size less than 3 mm are accepted
based on
Type of distribution
Concentration
Linear indications are usually rejected
Persistence of indications are affected by:
Pre-cleaning method.
The type of penetrant.
The processing procedure (for e.g. over-washing).
Temperature.
Type of developer.
Concentration of emulsifier and emulsification time.
57

False indications: False indications can be due to:
Poor washing (the operator can check this with the black light and after
penetrant removal process).
Poor housekeeping.
Penetrant on operator hands.
Contamination of developer.
Penetrant transferred to clean specimen from other indications
Penetrant on inspection table
True Indications
True indications can be broadly divided into 5 categories.
Continuous lines (due to cracks, cold shuts, lapse, scratches, die marks).
Intermittent lines ( due to any of the above if they are very tight or the
part is peened, machined or ground).
Round (usually porosity).
Small dots ( due to coarse gray structure or micro shrinkage).
Diffused or weak (due to very tight cracks like fatigue or stress corrosion
cracks; often due to false indications caused by improper procedures.)
58

Macrograph of a section taken through
a chill-cast aluminumalloy 20/1 billet
that was inspected by the solvent removable
liquid-penetrant system for porosity (black
spots) before forged in closed dies
Comparison of indications on
chromium-cracked panels
developed with water-washable
liquid penetrants of low sensitivity
(panel at left) and high sensitivity
(panel at right)
59

Lesson 11 Processes & Discontinuities
Inherent discontinuities - usually formed when the metal is molten
In the ingot before being made to blooms, slabs & billets
Inherent cast discontinuities
inadequate feeding
Gating
excessive pouring temperature
entrapped gases
Processing discontinuities
related to the various manufacturing processes
Machining
Forming
Extruding
rolling welding
heat treating
plating
60

Service discontinuities
related to the various service
conditions
stress corrosion
Fatigue
Erosion
Sub-surface discontinuities may be
opened up due to manufacturing
processes, such as machining
The Ingot
Pipe, pores, nonmetallic
inclusions, shrinkage
61

Casting
Cold shut
Porosity
Blow holes
Hot tear
Shrinkage
Microshrinkage
62

63

Wrought Products
Laminations
Stringers
Die tear
64

Welding Discontinuities
Crater cracks
Stress cracks
Porosity
Lack of fusion
Lack of penetration
Undercut
Inclusions
Slag
Tungsten
65

66

Grinding cracks
Heat treating cracks
Fatigue cracks
Creep cracks
67

Forging
discontinuities
Laps
Seams
Bursts
68

Liquid Penetrant Testing Introduction

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