Decolonization in Asia

• Concept of decolonization is grounded in Monroe Doctrine that was presented by James

Monroe, the US President, in 1823; it stated that:
"European powers were no longer to colonize or interfere with the affairs of the newly independent states of the
Americas. The United States would not interfere with existing colonies or their dependencies in the Western
Hemisphere. However, any attempt by a European nation to oppress or control any nation in the western
hemisphere would be seen as an act of aggression and the United States would intervene“

• Though it aimed at containment of European powers in America yet it laid the

foundation of decolonization
• Later on UN charter also supported the idea of decolonization and emphasized on the
need to acknowledge independence of states who were struggling for it
• End of WWII brought total change in power structure; this led colonial powers to
surrender in front of colonies that has started struggle for independence
• Process started in Asia where US set an example by decolonizing Philippines in 1946
that had been given to her by Spain in 1898 after US-Spain war
• It was followed by independence of Indian sub-continent and Srilanka in 1947, Burma
in 1948, Malaysia in 1957 (despite the fact that British announced to give them
independence by end 40s but rivalry among Muslims/Malays/Chinese delayed the
process for a decade) and Singapore in 1959
• British decolonized all its colonies quite peacefully however France (having colonies in
Indo-China; i.e. Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos) got indulged in wars because of its
reluctance to leave colonies; that it considered to be a source of prestige
• Vietnam had to go through first Indochina war with France from 1946-54 when it finally
got independence
Main factors contributing in the process of decolonization:
• Nationalism, anti-white sentiments, Japan’s invasion of East Asian colonies (that made
natives aware of weakness of colonial masters) & Japanese trained nationalists
 Chinese Revolution
•Qing Dynasty ended in 1911 because of growing agitation within masses
towards rulers; as China had been facing humiliation since Opium wars
•Kuomintang, led by Chang Kai Shek, came into power
•War Lords & land lords kept on opposing new regime hence government
had to face retaliation in rural areas
•Meanwhile Communist Party of China (CPC) was established;
Kuomintang joined hands with CPC to contain rural agitation
•With the passage of time CPC got dissatisfied with Kuomintang due to
its inefficiency and corruption; situation further worsened with
Manchurian crisis from 1931-33
•Chinese suffering during that crisis led CPC to raise voice against ruling
regime
•Hence Mao se Tung launched a long March in 1934 against Kuomintang;
this enhanced his popularity leading to civil war in the country….as a
result CPC got hold of rural areas
• Japan attacked China in 1937; this led CPC to end civil war and get
united with ruling regime to contain foreign aggressor
• CPC fought with dedication hence spreaded in various parts of China
•End of IIWW again pushed China into war like situation as both
Kuomintang & CPC got indulged in confrontation
•CPC fought guerrilla warfare and got hold of mainland of China;
Kuomintang could not contain CPC despite having foreign support
•Mao promoted his own version of Communism that had massive appeal
•Finally in 1949 China got divided into two parts; Mainland China was
declared as People Republic of China (led by Mao) and Republic of China
(having Taiwan, led by Kuomintang)
 Establishment of Israel
• Establishment of Israel dates back to Zionist movement that was formally
launched by the Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodore Herzal
• Zionism is based on secular as well as religious ideas in order to have
massive appeal; the idea of nationalism was floated to get support of
secular class, however idea of Promised Land (i.e. current Israel &
Palestine) was projected to attract religious people
• On the basis of Zionism Jews, who were scattered all across the Europe
started putting efforts to acquire their own state in so called Promised
Land of Middle east
• Palestine was initially part of Ottoman Empire but came under British
control with the end of WWI; Jews could win British support by
participating in WWI as partners of British
• British passed Balfour Declaration in 1917, supporting the idea of creation
of a separate homeland for Jews in Palestine; the declaration got
endorsed by the LON; this declaration allowed Jews to start migration in
Palestine
• This led to provoke Arabs against British hence British started putting
efforts to compensate Arabs; this led to the issuance of White Paper that
aimed at restriction of Jews’ migration in Palestine; British also promised
to establish independent Palestine that would be ruled by Arabs
• Jews again supported British during WWII but Labor party after the end of
WW extended full support to White paper; this led Jews to launch anti
British movement
• British finally referred this case to the UNO that announced establishment
of two states in territory of Palestine; while keeping Jerusalem under UN
control
• UN decision led to Arab-Jews fight in the region; meanwhile Jewish agency
announced establishment of Israel in May 1948
• Later on UN helped Arab and Israel to declare ceasefire in 1949
 Factors leading to Cold War
• Russian Revolution: Mistrust between USSR & West existed since Russian
revolution as all of these states supported anti-communist groups at that time
• Soviet alliance with Allies: Soviets first joined Germany but had to shift
partners because of German invasion against them hence were compelled to
join Allies
• Atomic Bomb: USA did not inform USSR about making of atomic bomb until Potsdam
Conference where Roosevelt got the news of successful testing of the weapon; this
made USSR insecure. Later on USSR objected Baruch plan presented by the US at UN
forum to contain spread of nuclear technology. USSR rather came up with its own
proposal asking US to roll back its nuclear program in order to end proliferation of this
technology; US also refused to accept that proposal
• Division of Germany: Initially Germany had to be divided into 3 parts among USSR,
USA & Britain however with the inclusion of France into this group; USSR asked US &
UK to share their part with France and refused to give any share of its own part to her
in order to keep European influence contained over there. Meanwhile issue of
reparations also became a bone of contention between USSR and Western powers as it
wanted to get huge reparations from Germany this led Western powers to divide
Germany into East (being controlled by USSR) and West (under Western control); hence
they gave liberty to USSR to pursue its own policies independently; this further
increased gap between both sides
• Eastern Europe: USSR (being victim of paranoia) wanted to have influence in Eastern
Europe in order to make it secure; this remained main point of conflict between both
sides. Issue became more problematic when USSR influenced elections in Poland &
brought Communist regime over there (in order to keep polish dynasty away; as Polish
dynasty had always remained against Soviets)
• Other Issues: Other potent issues of conflict remained USSR’s insistence to stay in
Iran plus its demand to have special position in terms of having access to Iranian oil;
issue of internationalization of Bosporus Strait and civil war in Greece
 Doctrines that led to division of World into two
Blocks
• Iron Curtain: Winston Churchill (PM of UK) came up
with an idea in 1946 that drew an imaginary line
between East and West from Baltic Sea to Adriatic
Sea; separating them from one another. This line was
declared as ‘Iron Curtain’; it actually aimed at
separating Capitalist block from Communist block.
Later on Berlin wall was created in 1961 separating
East and West Germany, by Soviets, in order to
convert imaginary iron curtain into reality
• Truman’s Doctrine: US President gave a doctrine in
1947 that was based on the idea to support freedom
of people in Latin America as well as Europe
• Policy of Containment: It was presented by George
F. Kennan (a diplomat at US embassy in Moscow); he
published it in the form of an article in Foreign Affairs
in July 1947; this policy gave the idea of containment
of Communism by political and economic means
 Ways adopted to implement these policies
• Marshall Plan: The Marshall Plan was the primary plan of the
United States for rebuilding and creating a stronger foundation for
the countries of Western Europe, and repelling communism after
World War II. The initiative was taken by Secretary of State George
Marshall in July 1947. This plan was later on extended to various
developing countries all across the globe
• Formation of NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization was
formed in April 1949, in order to contain Soviets. It was based on
the idea of Collective defense. During Cold War it remained limited
to Western European countries plus Northern America however after
the end of Cold War its scope extended to Eastern Europe also.
Soviets formed WARSAW Pact (a pure military treaty) in response to
NATO, in 1955 and kept its focus on Eastern Europe
• Atom for Peace Plan: The US President Eisenhower gave this
plan in 50s in order to enhance their influence all across the globe.
This plan aimed at transfer of peaceful nuclear technology to
various states in order to assist them to utilize that technology for
development
• Alliances: Another method being adopted by Capitalist block, to
contain Communists, was alliance formation. Two most significant
alliances of that time include SEATO (Southeast Asian Treaty
Organization) and CENTO (Central treaty Organization)
 Cold War

On the basis of above mentioned issues the whole world

was divided into two blocks after the end of WWII, i.e.
Capitalist Block (led by US; including Western Europe)
& Communist Block (led by Soviet Union & including
Eastern Europe). Hence from 1947 till 1990 the whole
world witnessed indirect confrontation (i.e. Proxy
wars) between the two blocks. As this era did not
observe any conventional war between the two blocks
that’s why is termed as Cold War Period i.e. hostility
minus war. Throughout this period leading powers of
both blocks remained active in enhancing their
influence at the expanse of other. This period ended
with the demise of Soviet Union
 Non Aligned Movement (NAM)
• Many countries in the developing world considered them to
be vulnerable amidst two major blocks
• Therefore in order to find a mid way to avoid confrontation or
coalition with any of the two blocks, 23 Asian and 6 African
states sent 340 delegates to Indonesia
• After discussing various issues they agreed to establish NAM
to officially declare their neutrality
• India was considered to be the most significant member of
NAM
• Key principles of NAM are:
i) Peaceful co-existence
ii) Support for National Liberation Movements
iii) Non-alignment & non participation in Cold War military alliances
iv) Refusal to host military basis of Great Powers
v) Non-participation in any defense treaty related to conflicts including
any of the Great Powers
• NAM focused on economic development of member states
and avoided political aspects hence its members kept on
growing and became 79 in 1976
• Being extremely anti-imperialist (i.e. West), members of NAM
soon moved closer to the Soviet Union
 Korean War (June 25, 1950-July 23, 1953)
• Background: At Potsdam Conference US & USSR agreed to divide
Korean Peninsula (into North & South Korea) temporarily at 38th Parallel.
Meanwhile they decided to unify Korea after holding free elections in the
region. Soviets wanted withdrawal of troops from both parts, US
however refused to agree. Within short span Soviet trained communists
established regime in North without having any elections and declared it
to be People’s Republic of Korea however anti-communist regime got
established in South through elections hence it was named as Republic
of Korea in 1948. This led to withdrawal of troops from both sides
• War: Land Reforms were introduced in North Korea that increased anti
regime sentiments within South Koreans where no reforms were brought
in. This helped North Korea to launch attack against South Korea on June
25, 1950. In order to contain North Korea, that had reached South
Korean capital, US troops intervened and started pushing North Koreans
back. As soon as US troops reached Yallu River, China asked them to
stop but as General Macarthur refused to listen; China had to intervene
in October 1950. By 1951 troops of both sides reached at 38th parallel.
General Macarthur was dismissed and war informally ended in the same
year. Skirmishes on border line continued for two years and formal
ceasefire was declared in July 1953; at the same point where war began
 Berlin Wall

The Berlin Wall was a physical barrier

separating West Berlin from the East
Germany, including East Berlin for more than
25 years, from the day construction began
on August 13, 1961 until it was opened on
November 9th, 1989. The fall of the Berlin
Wall paved the way for German
reunification, which was formally concluded
on October 3, 1990. Both borders came to
symbolize the Iron Curtain between Western
and Eastern Europe.
 The Cuban Missile Crisis
• Background: Efforts to bring revolution in Cuba started in July 1953 when
Fidel Castro along with a group of people attacked military barracks; as a result
was imprisoned for 18 months then went to Mexico and returned in 1956. From
May 1957 Castro with small number of guerrillas started launching attacks on
various sites. Finally they got hold of centre in January 1959; Batista then fled
away from the country. Castro after coming into power raised voice against
unequal relations of the US & Cuba hence became true defender of Cuban
sovereignty. US in return started calling him communist that actually led him to
join Communist block.
In order to contain his influence the US adopted various means to punish him;
i) US ended export import with Cuba in order to deteriorate her economy; this led
Cuba to look towards Soviet Union
ii) CIA of the US trained Cuban exiles and dropped them at ‘Bay of Pigs’ at night in
order to topple Castro’s regime. As public was with Castro hence CIA’s strategy
got failed. After failure of this plan US started thinking in terms of launching an
attack against Cuba
• Crisis: Cuba asked USSR for help in 1962. Soviets made a plan to deploy their
nuclear weapons in Cuba in order to threaten US; hence they mobilized their
ships for this purpose. As soon as US got information about Soviet’s motives
Kennedy decided to create a naval blockade i.e. quarantine, in order to stop
Soviets to enter Cuba. Both countries were at the brink of nuclear war; but
Kennedy's efforts to start informal negotiations with Soviets helped them to
sort out peaceful solution. US agreed to remove its missiles from Turkey and
also to ensure sovereignty of Cuba hence Soviets called their ships back. In this
way crisis ended within 13 days. Since then both states further intensified their
efforts towards disarmament
 Vietnam War
Background: First Indochina war ended in 1954,
temporarily dividing Vietnam into North & South at 17th
Parallel. Geneva accords were signed asking French
troops to stay in South till elections that had to be held in
1956; in order to unify Vietnam. Soon afterwards south
Vietnam became monarchy being headed by King Bao dai;
he however was ousted by his PM Ngo Dinh Diem in 1956;
who held referendum & got 98% of votes. In North
Vietnam Communist regime was established by Ho Chi
Minh, who became President through elections. North
Vietnam was then declared as Democratic Republic of
Vietnam.
In South, people of rural areas soon got depressed by
Diem who failed to introduce land reforms that had been
brought in North by Communist regime. Meanwhile
remnants of communists wing i.e. Viet Minh, in South
further provoked peasantry class against ruling regime.
Various political groups got united against Diem and
made a new party named as National Liberation Front
(NLF). Guerrilla tactics were used to pressurize Diem; who
in return adopted oppressive means to curb resistance.
Buddhist monks also retaliated but of no use. This led
USA to intervene hence military coup was brought in
causing assassination of Diem in 1963. Change in regime
could not bring stability as resistance remained there
American involvement in War: President Johnson used ‘Tonkin Incident’ as a
pretext to launch air raid against Vietnam in mid 1965. Meanwhile another coup
occurred in South Vietnam bringing more anti-communist regime in power. Later
on, in 1967 US hold so-called democratic elections in South in order to propagate
their support for ‘democratic cause’. Since then full –fledged Vietnam war started.
North Vietnam also got involved and fought guerilla warfare against American
troops. Against American expectations war prolonged causing frustration within
Americans. When it entered its third year Johnson’s popularity declined remarkably
particularly after ‘Tet Offensive’ launched by Communists all across South Vietnam
getting hold of 36 out of 44 provincial capitals. US in response launched heavy
offensive pushing Southern Communists back yet it brought psychological
discouragement for American troops. Heavy loss for Americans in Vietnam war
caused defeat of Johnson in elections bringing Nixon into power. Nixon propagated
the idea of ‘Vietnamization’ of war in order to disengage US from Indo-China.
Meanwhile N.Vietnam started giving proposal to hold talks with adversaries but in the
presence of NLF; the idea got rejected by US & S.Korea. With the passage of time
all parties finally agreed to hold talks in 1969 but talks failed. Due to immense
public pressure US started making plans to withdraw its troops from Vietnam. On
the other hand Cambodia and Laos started extending support for Communist
guerillas that led US to deploy troops along borders. Anti-war protests further
intensified leading all parties to hold various phases of talks to end war. Final
negotiations started in 1972 leading to the signing of an agreement in 1973; that
asked US to withdraw its troops from the region. US actually withdrew in 73;
S.Vietnam however launched an offensive but could not sustain in front of
N.Vietnmaese. Hence in January 1975 S.Vietnam was subdued by N.Vietnam leading
to unification of the country.
 Sino-Soviet Split
• Korean War brought USSR & China close hence both started
representing same block, however relations started getting
deteriorated by mid 50s
Reasons behind their split:
• Unequal ‘treaty of friendship’ between Moscow & China that was
signed in early 50s in favor of USSR
• Death of Stalin led Mao to ask USSR to revise that treaty in order to
resolve historical territorial disputes on equal ground
• Khrushev’s criticism of Stalin and his adherence to policy of peaceful
co-existence with capitalist bloc brought severe criticism by Mao
• Meanwhile Chinese diversion from Soviet economic model and
initiation of ‘Great Leap forward’ plan further increased gap between
USSR & China; later on, failure of that program & Moscow’s denial of
economic aid and loans to China further spoiled their relation
• Likewise Soviet diplomatic support for India during Indo-Sino war in 62
intensified rift between the two states of same bloc
• 2 years later Chinese successful detonation of nuclear tests took China
out of Moscow’s influence hence historical territorial issues came into
lime light
• Power changed in USSR as Khrushev was replaced by Brezhnev yet
tension remained there
• Finally border dispute at ‘Damanski Island’ along with Ussuri River in
1969 ultimately caused permanent split of Sino-Soviet bloc
 Indo-Pak Relations

Since independence Indo-Pak relations have been shaped by

few issues; most significant of them being Kashmir issue as
relations of the two countries revolve around this. Besides
that Water dispute of 50s, Sir Creek and Siachen Glacier
have also played potent role in widening gap between the
two countries. Let us shed some light on above mentioned
issues before moving on to Kashmir dispute.
• Water Issue: It led to a water-sharing treaty between
India and Pakistan with the help of World Bank. According
to this treaty, India was allowed to use all of the waters of
three Eastern Rivers i.e. Sutlej, Bias and Ravi exclusively.
Whereas Pakistan was granted exclusive right over
Western Rivers of Jhelum, Chinab and Indus.
• Issue of Sir Creek: It is a 96 km strip of water between
Indian state of Gujrat and Pakistani province of Sindh. Both
states have claim over water & resources of Sir Creek.
• Siachen Glacier: The Siachen Glacier is located in the
eastern Karakoram range in the Himalaya Mountains along
the disputed India-Pakistan border. The glacier is the
highest battleground on earth, where India and Pakistan
have fought intermittently since April 13, 1984. Both
countries maintain permanent military personnel in the
 Kashmir Issue
Kashmir dispute dates back to independence of sub-continent. British
government in fact sold Kashmir to Hindu Maharaja, whose family
was ruling Kashmir valley since late 1800. As majority of population
was Muslim over there hence they preferred to join Pakistan but
Maharaja declared it to be an independent state of Kashmir. Soon
after independence fight start between Muslim Mujahideen and
ruling regime of Kashmir. Fear of defeat led Maharaja to request
Indian troops to intervene hence signed the Instrument of
Accession with Indian government in October 1947. Indian
government therefore sent its troops to counter Muslim insurgents.

• War of 1948:
Indian entrance in Kashmir led Pakistani forces to get openly indulged
in the conflict hence war between the two countries started 21
October1947 that continued till December 48 when India requested
UN to declare ceasefire. On 31 December 1948 ceasefire was
declared on a condition that referendum would be held in Kashmir,
as soon as situation gets normalized, hence Kashmiris would decide
their fate. Since then Kashmir got divided into two parts one being
known as Pakistani administered Kashmir and the other one i.e.
Indian administered Kashmir. Since then no plebiscite took place
till date. Kashmir therefore remains bone of contention between
the two states.
• Wars: Kashmir issue then led both countries to
come in direct confrontation with one another. Few
of the key incidents based on Kashmir issue are
discussed below:
• 1965 War: Skirmishes took place between the two
sides from April to September of 1965. The most
significant of them was “Operation Gibraltar” that
began in August 1965 but failed. This was planned
by ISI hence a group of people were sent to Kashmir
in order to push Indian troops out of the region.
They were expecting to get assistance by local
Kashmiris but could not get that hence were caught.
This led India to wage war on Sept 06. Both sides
inflicted damage upon the other and also suffered in
return. Finally ceasefire was called by the UNSC on
Sept 22. Soviet Union facilitated negotiations in
Tashkent where Tashkent Agreement was signed in
Jan 1966.
• 1971 War: Growing dissatisfaction within East Pakistan led common
masses to start protest against West Pakistan. 1970 elections further
deteriorated the situation. People's Party’s victory and establishment of
regime flared up East Pakistani public. Government deployed military
troops to maintain law & order in East Pakistan. This led thousands of
people to migrate to India. India got advantage of the situation hence
trained local Bengalis who then launched Mukti Bahini movement
against government. Indian forces meanwhile opened war front on the
Pakistan’s Western border. Situations became terrible for the regime
hence war ended with Indian victory as almost 90,000 Pakistanis
became Prisoners of War. Bangladesh declared independence on 16
December 1971. Shimla declaration was signed by India & Pakistan in
1972 to officially end war.
• Brass tack exercises: In 1987 Indian troops started military training
at Rajasthan border without informing Pakistan. Tension emerged
between two countries that was brought to an end by using threat of
nuclear technology as a deterrent by Pakistani President General Zia-ul-
Huq.
• 1990 onwards: Uprising in Kashmir started in 1989 that increased rift
between the two countries. Despite having confrontation at Kashmir
point; economic interest motivated both countries to initiate peace
process as Confidence building measure. Meanwhile successful nuclear
tests by both countries, Kargil crisis, military stand off in 2001and
finally recent Mumbai attacks have come up as key issues that kept on
bringing peace process at halt.
 Arab-Israel Wars
• First war was fought in 1948, soon after the establishment of Israel. Arabs had
to face defeat because of their poor strategies as well as lack of unity. Five
Arab states were involved namely, Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq and Saudi
Arabia all of them having their own policies to fight against Israel, let Israel
win (Israel also occupied Jerusalem at that time). Arabs were more concerned
about Palestinian refugees who were being expelled from the territory of
Israel. Arabs therefore refused to recognize Israel.
• This defeat of Arab states brought major changes in some of the states e.g.
four regimes changed in Syria till 1954; King Abdullah of Jordan was
assassinated by Palestinians in 1951; Egyptian monarchy was overthrown by
military in 1952. Hence Mohammad Najeeb and Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser
came to power.
• Background of Anglo-Egypt Ties: British occupation started in 1981 but
officially it remained a part of Ottoman Empire. In 1922 it was converted into a
British Protectorate. However, in 1936both signed a treaty according to which
Britain got right to use Suez canal for navigation etc.
• After the end of World War II and beginning of Cold War, Britain gave
independence to Sudan in accordance with its will; hence Sudan was no more a
part of Egypt. Egypt considered it as a blow.
• In 1954 Britain and Egypt signed a treaty about Suez Canal according to which
Britain had to withdraw its troops from there and they could come back in case
of any Soviet attack against these Middle Eastern countries.
• Meanwhile Egypt got information about French-Israel arms deal hence signed
same kind of deal with Czechoslovakia and also recognized China
• This led US to end financial support for construction of Aswan Dam in Egypt.
Jamal Abdul Nasser therefore announced nationalization of Suez canal. This
frustrated Britain & France so they joined hands with Israel to launch attack
against Egypt (US didn’t give them permission to wage war)
• Israel launched war against Egypt on 29 October 1956 and soon got its
objectives achieved but UNSC got involved in the meantime calling both parties
to declare ceasefire. Britain & France then entered into war causing Soviet
announcement to extend support for Egypt
• Ultimately UN called Israel to be war guilty hence Egypt got political victory. UN
troops were also deployed in Sinai desert of Egypt to keep anti-Israel check
over there. After the end of Suez canal crisis Britain & France had to leave
Egyptian territory while Jordan-Syria-Egypt made an alliance. Meanwhile USSR
gave support for Aswan dam’s construction
1967 Arab-Israel War: In June 1967 Israel launched an attack against
Egypt, Jordan & Syria by claiming it to be a preemptive strike and got
hold of Sinai desert, Jordan River and Golan Heights. It was a six days
war that ended with Israeli victory. After this war almost one million
Arabs came under Israeli control. Israel got an edge in Middle East.
Meanwhile Nasser died hence power transferred to Anwar Sadat.
Yom Kippur War/ 1973 Arab Israel War:
For the first time Egypt & Syria launched a joint attack in
Sinai desert & Golan heights against Israeli troops. For fist
48 hours they fully dominated the scene however tables
turned down afterwards. Iraq & Jordan also assisted their
Arab brethrens yet Israel pushed them back. US & USSR got
involved in order to bring ceasefire yet Egypt silently
violated that leading Israel to launch major offensive
against her. War ended in Israel’s victory.
Camp David Accord:
After facing defeat in this war Egypt got convinced of Israeli
strength hence considered negotiations to be more viable
option to resolve territorial disputes with Israel. There after
Anwar Sadat paid an official visit to Israel in 1977. Later on
US helped then to start negotiations at Camp David in 78;
that led to the signing of Camp David Accord on 17
September 1978. It further led to the signing of Egypt-Israel
Peace Treaty in 1979. This accord led Egypt to extend
recognition to Israel and withdrawal of Israeli troops from
Sinai desert. Meanwhile Egypt got expelled from Arab
League.
 Iranian Revolution
Historical background: Following the Iranian Constitutional
Revolution of 1906, Iran's first constitution came into effect, approved
by the Majlis. The constitution established a special place for Shia
Islam. Hence declared Islam the official religion of Iran. However, after
the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty, Reza Pahlavi, like his contemporary
Atatürk, tried to secularize and westernize Iran. This led common
masses to turn against him. Later on, during WWII he was replaced by
his son Mohammad Raza Pahlavi; a military man, had been known for
his determination to modernize Iran and his hostility to the Ulemas. He
remained in power till 1979 despite a brief interruption in 1953.
Rise of Mossadegh & Operation A-Jex: In 1953 power struggle
between Raza and his PM Mossadegh, (a democratically elected
communist) who nationalized Iranian oil fields led Raza to flee from
Iran. US got involved in this situation covertly in order to overthrow
Mossadegh’s regime. CIA therefore planned a secret operation with
code name of ‘Operation A-Jex’ to replace him. CIA funded guerrillas
along with some Iranian Islamists ultimately brought coup against
Mossadegh hence brought Raza Pahlavi back into power.
Factors that led to Iranian Revolution:
• The unpopularity of the Shah's regime: the perception that the Shah
was beholden to - if not a puppet of - a non-Muslim Western power, (the
United States) whose culture was contaminating that of Iran's; that the
Shah's regime was oppressive, corrupt, and extravagant.
• Political repression executed by intelligence agencies which employed
censorship and resorted to imprisoning and torture of dissidents,
murder of opponents to the Shah regime.
• The technical failures of the regime: i.e. of the regime's overly-
ambitious economic program that increased inflation; the failure of its
security forces to deal with protest and demonstration; and the overly
centralized royal power structure.
• The growth of the Islamic revival that opposed Westernization and saw
Ayatollah Khomeini as their spiritual leader.
• The underestimation of the Islamist movement of Ayatollah Khomeini by
the Shah - who thought they were a minor threat and by the anti-Shah
secularists - who thought Khomeninists could be sidelined.
• Above all White Revolution (change in constitution of 1906; by
introducing secular values to that) worked as a catalyst in intensifying
people's anti regime sentiments.
• Meanwhile Khomeini was sent into exile yet he remained active in his
efforts to bring revolution.
Revolution:
The ideology of the revolution can be summarized as populist, nationalist and
most of all Shi'a Islamic.
The revolution actually started with the major demonstrations against the
Shah led by Islamic groups that came in January 1978. Furious students and
religious leaders in the city of Qom demonstrated against a libelous story
attacking Khomeini run in the official press. The army was sent in,
dispersing the demonstrations and killing several students. By summer
1978, many workers, often from traditional rural backgrounds, joined the
street protests in massive numbers. Other workers went on strike and by
November the economy was crippled by shutdowns. Facing a revolution, the
Shah appealed to the United States for support. Because of its history and
strategic location, Iran was important to the United States. It was a pro-
American country sharing a long border with America's cold war rival, the
Soviet Union, and the largest, most powerful country in the oil-rich Persian
Gulf. But the Pahlavi regime had also recently garnered unfavorable
publicity in the West for its human rights record. The Carter administration
followed "no clear policy" on Iran. Ultimately massive revolution led Shah to
flee from Iran to US; meanwhile Ayatollah Khomeini came back to Iran
bringing total change in government. Revolutionary Council was made that
had got support of Revolutionary Guards.
Hostage Crisis: 54 Americans were held hostage for 444 days as Iran asked
US to return Shah & his family back, US however refused. Crisis ended
without fulfillment of Iranian demands yet it indicated revolutionaries’
strength
 Iran-Iraq War
Reasons behind war:
• Border dispute over the Iranian Province of Khuzestan as
Iraq had historical claims over there
• Fear of Shiite insurgency as Sunni minority was ruling Shia
majority of Iraq; Iranian revolution in this regard became
source of tension for Iraqi President Saddam Hussein
• Intention of both Iran & Iraq to dominate Persian Gulf
• Dispute over Shat-al-Arab; a waterway that borders with
Iran and Iraq
Triggering factor:
• An assassination attempt against Iraqi PM Tariq Aziz in
1980 led Iraq to accuse Iran
• Meanwhile various incidents of bomb blasts at different
Iraqi sites also increased rift between Iraq & Iran
War:
Iraq used above mentioned factors as pretext to launch war
against Iran in 1980. For first two years Iraq dominated the
scene and entered into Khuzestan. After staying silent for first
two years Iran launched a major offensive against Iraq that
pushed Iraqi troops back. Iraq then proposed ceasefire in 1982
but Iran refused to accept rather asked Saddam Hussein to
leave his portfolio. War then prolonged for another six years
and ended without any marked achievement for both sides.
Iraq even used chemical weapons against Iran as well as
against Kurds within Iraq. War brought huge losses for both
countries hence badly affected their economy.
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Jordan, Singapore, Italy, UK and France
extended full support to Iraq while Israel & North Korea
supported Iran. US role however remained controversial as it
apparently supported Iraq but also provided arms to Iran.
 End Of Cold War
Various factors contributed in bringing an
end to Cold War:
• Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
• Huge economic burden on Soviet Union
• Domestic Reforms introduced by Gorbachev
• Inherent weaknesses in Communist ideology
• Technological gap between US and USSR
• Lack of grip over East Europe
• Finally it became hard for Moscow to keep
various parts of Soviet Union in tact
 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
• King Mohammad Zahir Shah ruled Afghanistan from 1933-1973. In the
meantime his cousin Mohammad Daoud served as PM from 54-63 and later
on bought a blood-less military coup in 1973 against King Zahir by accusing
him for corruption & inefficiency; bringing his regime to end
• At the same time Peoples’ Marxist Democratic Party of Afghanistan got
strength but got divided into two factions in 1967 i.e. Khalq (led by Nur
Mohammad Tarakai) and Parcham (led by Babrak Kamal)
• Mohammad Daoud after coming into power pursued oppressive policies
against PDPA; motivating both factions to launch anti-regime movement-
that led to overthrow of ruling regime and execution of Daoud in 1978.
Hence Nur M. Tarakai became PM of Afghanistan and adopted brutal
policies against Parcham compelling its leaders to flee
• Government introduced Soviet style programs of reforms but faced
criticism by common public. A strong rebel movement started that caused
death of Tarakai bringing his PM Amin into power; who wanted to take
Afghanistan out of Soviet influence. Anti regime movements still remained
there (with covert support of CIA) ; in order to bring stability in country
USSR intervened by using military troops and brought Babrak Kamal into
power
• Soviet troops had to face resistance by Islamists, urban uprising, tribal,
Afghan Army units and CIA/ISI trained Taliban
• USSR got stuck in tough terrain of Afghanistan hence it took almost 3 years
to withdraw even after realization of the need to end war. Hence Soviet
troops left Afghanistan from 1988-89. Afghanistan remained in civil war like
situation even after that till 1996 when Taliban got hold of power
Economic burden: Input oriented economic system created
adverse effect on Soviet economy. Meanwhile long term
involvement of USSR in Afghanistan further deteriorated
economic condition of the country; bringing serious
repercussions for common public causing dissatisfaction
within masses. Poor economic conditions led Gorbachev to
formulate new policies to introduce reforms in his country.
Major Reforms: Gorbachev introduced reforms at political,
social and economic front:
• Democratization: These reforms were based on
introduction of multi-candidate elections for CPSU
• Glasnost: It was based on the policy of maximum publicity,
openness and transparency in government institution along
with freedom of information
• Perestroika: It denotes economic reforms that were based
on restructuring of Soviet economy i.e. from input oriented
economy to output oriented economy
Inherent weaknesses in Communist Ideology:
After six decades since Communist revolution main proponent of this
ideology i.e. USSR also started realizing inherent gaps within Communism.
Basically this ideology lost ground both on religious and economic front.
Atheism caused frustration within masses who wanted to have some source
to look at. Meanwhile economic decline of Soviet Union and then
Gorbachev’s policies to bring reforms also played an effective role in
bringing flaws of Communist ideology on scene. In the meantime Soviet
efforts to wind up gap with capitalist bloc also came in lime light. Soviet
technological gap with US was yet another weakness that became point of
concern in 80s. All this led various communist countries to deviate from
communism. Political opponents started putting demand for reformation
hence USSR lost grip over East Europe where Soviet supported Communist
regimes were in power. As a result Poland & Hungary became first
E.European countries to hold elections. Likewise massive protests in
Czechoslovakia & E.Germany entrenched ruling parties. While in Romania &
Bulgaria violent uprising started. Finally Fall of Berlin Wall in 1989
ultimately brought an end to Iron Curtain. All these weaknesses then led
Soviet Republics to seek independence from Moscow’s rule. Hence Cold
War ended with demise of Soviet Union and emergence of 15 independent
states on world map.