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citrus

Memory

a way of knowing

Memories of the past are not memories

of facts but memories of your
imaginings of the facts.
Phillip Roth

It will be easier if we are

able to discuss the difference and relationship between personal and

shared memories

able to explain how we form memories individually

able to explain how we retrieve memories

able to identify problems with memory

able to understand the ways in which we counteract potential

problems with memory

able to understand the way that formal areas of knowledge function as

centres of shared memory for memories on a cultural national or
international level

able to understand why it is important for researchers to adhere to

ethical practices

what do we know from memory?

Procedural memory

Declarative memory

semantic

episodic

Procedural knowledge

Personal knowledge

First..

If you forget everything, would you still be you?

Memory is far more than just recording facts, It;s

also central to establishing who we are as
human beings and to engaging with the world in
a much broader sense.

Consider this..

Sally remembers that she has visited

Rhode Island, but she does not know
that she has. This conjunction sounds
odd and one plausible explanation of
the oddness is that remembering
requires knowing. The second
conjunct denies something the first
conjunct asserts, so the conjunction
seems incoherent.

How can we remember without knowing?

How do we create memories?

How do you make memories?

No, really. How do YOU make memories?

Okay, something visual about how you make me

mories.

An Information Processing Model

Encoding : an information gets into our brains

in a way that allows it to be stored.

Storage: the information is held in a way that

allows it to later be retrieved

Retrieval: reactivating and recalling the

information, producing it in a form similar to
what was encoded

the Atkinson-Shriffin Model (1968)

So?

the key is a connection to an existing

memory.

Using Memory

PRIMING

How do we retrieve memories?

It is mere matter of activating the network so that it calls

the relevant knowledge up into consciousness.

Improve memory recall

focus on certain cues

make sure that you encode the memory well

pay attention to the moment when you create the

memory

retrieval system needs not to be broken

storing memories - reconstructions

Context-Dependent
Memory

What else was going on?

State-dependent
memory

Mood-congruent memory

Can we improve our memory?

Three stages of memory process

Acquisition

Retention

Retrieval

Problems with
Memory

Why is our memory full of errors?

We dont just forget, but memory gets

constructed ( imagined, selected, changed,
and rebuilt).

Our memory is altered every time we

reconstruct them, and altered again when we
reconsolidate.

Later information alters earlier memories

Misinformation Effect

porating misleading information into ones memory of an e

Misattribution

Source Amnesia

memory and biases

confirmation bias

hindsight bias

consistency bias

Dj vu

Can be seen as a source

amnesia
that
we
misattributes from long
term memory

Sometimes our sense of

familiarity
and
recognition kicks in too
soon, and out brain
explains this as being
caused
by
prior
experience

Also,

Bartlett (1932) and Schacter (1996, 2002)), believe

human
memory
processing
is
much
more
complicated than the mere depositing of items and
later withdrawing them. Memory selectively stores
information, expands part of it, combines it with
background information and adds data from the
context, in which the subject later retrieves the
information.

In other words, memory generally alters significantly

what enters it. As a result, recollecting is not the
retrieving,
but
rather
the
generating
of
representations of the past.

Recollecting actually generates new beliefs about the

How reliable is eyewitness testimony?

Eventually, we may end up

remembering not our experience, but
our memory of the experience, and then
our memory of our memory, and so on,
without ever knowing the difference.
It may, therefore, be that in those cases
where we have no independent means
of verifying a memory, the more it
drifts; and that even if a memory
appears to be clear and accurate, that
may be no guarantee as to its
accuracy.

Flashbulb Memory

There are some events

which are so powerful that
they imprint themselves on
our mind indelibly.

I will never forget this

moment moments.

However, a study by Ulric

Neisser,
found
that
alterations
the
the
memories were found to be
dramatic and changes.

Physiological
problems

Problems with memory.

How can we be certain that we have any

access to reality if our minds simply construct
the past for us instead of playing it back on
tape and we have no way of knowing which
problems are interfering with our ability to
recall what we once knew?

Mnemonic Devices

Independent
verification
For verification of the memories of
our personal experiences, we can
turn to friends and family members
as well as to journals, letters
planning,calendars, and many other
records of our individual lives.

Shared Memory

The discussion on the various areas of

knowledge delve into the means by which we
discover or generate knowledge in those areas,
with, importantly, an emphasis on how we
validate the accuracy of that knowledge.The
process,in each area of knowledge, includes the
procedures by which the knowledge is recorded
and shared and stored for posterity.

Fraudulent Behaviour

Sometimes the updating of shared memory does

not occur as the result of ongoing research, but
rather due to a sudden discovery that something
we have confidence in turns out to be wrong.
One reason that this some times happens is that
an individual contributor to cultural memory
engages in unethical behaviour.

manufactured data

problems of attribution and factual accuracy

Validation and Re-validation

We do not have a perfect path to the truth, and

we make mistakes. One important aspect of any
knowledge-seeking endeavour, therefore, is the
validation and re-validation of whatever we
already think we know.

Lost Knowledge

Once no one living remembers a particular

experience that was never written down or
otherwise recorded that knowledge is forgotten
to the culture as well as to the individual.

Imagination & Memory:

Two Sides of the Same Coin

Memory decline in old age may also mean a less

vivid imagination.

An intriguing possibility raised by the hypothesis

is that the primary role of human memory may
not be to remember the past, but to imagine and
prepare for the future.

Sources

PBS NOVA How Memory Works

Epistemology of Memory

Memory

Psychology Wiki of Memory

Human Memory

Epistemological problems of memory

Perception and Memory

However, when one thinks about it a

little more, were not on quite such solid
ground. First, memory isnt a primary way of
knowing. Instead, we use the other ways of
knowing to provide us with our initial
knowledge, and only afterwards employ
memory to modify and enhance that
knowledge. Second, memory is notoriously
unreliable: how one person remembers
something will be radically different to how
another person recalls it, meaning that it must
be treated with care if one is to build up
objective knowledge about a thing.

Now, as a closure..