Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Review of Related
Literature
Covers literature done on the topic
and expounds on the context and
background of the problem
It helps further define the problem
Provide empirical bases for
hypotheses
Methodology
Recounts exactly what the researcher
did.
Informs the reader in sufficient detail how
the study was conducted
*so that others may replicate the study
*evaluate the appropriateness of the
methods used
*check the reliability of the results
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Research Design
Refers to the plan of attack. The
research design answers these
questions:
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Population
Is the entire aggregate of cases in
which a researcher is interested.
The entire set of individuals (or
objects) having some common
characteristics
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Sample
Is a subset of population elements
Group of units chosen from the
sampling frame to be studied
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Element
Is the most basic unit about which
information is collected
Also known as sampling unit
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Sampling Frame
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Strata
Stratum is a mutually exclusive
segment of a population, established
by one or more characteristics
Strata are often used in sample
selection process to enhance the
samples representativeness
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Sampling Bias
Refers to the systematic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some segment of
the population in terms of a
characteristics relevant to the
research question
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Eligibility Criteria
The criteria that specify the
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Costs
Practical concerns
Peoples ability to participate in a study
Design consideration
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SAMPLING DESIGNS
PROBABILITY
NON-PROBABILITY
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Probability Sampling
Involves random selection in choosing
the elements
Researchers can specify the probability
that each element of the population
will be included in the sample
Greater confidence can be placed in
the representativeness of probability
samples
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Non-Probability Sampling
Elements are selected by non-random
method
There is no way to estimate the
probability that each element has of
being included in a non-probability
sample.
Usually, every element does not have
a chance for inclusion.
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Types of Non-Probability
Sampling
Convenience Sampling (Accidental,
snowball / chain sampling)
Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
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Convenience Sampling
Entails using the most conveniently
Quota Sampling
The non-random selection of
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Purposive Sampling
Also referred to as judgmental sampling
Based on the belief that researchers
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PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Involves the random selection of
elements from a population
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Probability Sampling
Methods
Simple Random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic sampling
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Stratified Sampling
The population is divided into non-
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Cluster Sampling
This involves selecting clusters or
Cluster sampling
- A random selection
of strata or groups
is taken
Representation of
samples are
heterogeneous
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Systematic Random
sampling
Selecting a unit between 1 and k (where k
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Sample Size
Descriptive = 10-20% of the population
Correlational = 30 subjects
Ex-post facto = 15 subjects
Experimental = 15-30 (30-60) per group
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Instrumentation
Refers to the process of developing
and using research instruments
necessary for data gathering.
- questionnaires
- tests
- interview guides
- observation schedule
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Sources of Instruments
Professional journals format / styles
Books actual description
Other researchers
Self-made instruments
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Guidelines in Developing
Instruments:
Must be suitable for its function
Must be able to test the hypothesis /
answer the problem of the study
Reliable
Valid
Free of bias and prejudices
Free of built-in clues avoid leading
questions
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Characteristics of Quantitative
data instruments:
1. Validity = convincing and well-
Types of Validity
VALIDITY : is the degree to which an
instrument measures what is
suppose to measure
1. Face validity
2. Construct validity
3. Criterion-Related validity
a. Predictive validity
b. Concurrent validity
4. Content validity
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Face Validity
Refers to whether the instrument
Construct Validity
Degree to which an instrument measure
hypothetical traits.
Key construct validity questions are:
What is this instrument really
measuring?
Does it adequately measure the
abstract concept of interest?
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Criterion-Related Validity
Involves determining the
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Predictive Validity
Refers to the adequacy of an
Concurrent Validity
Refers to an instruments ability to
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Content Validity
Is achieved when the scale is made
up of a well-balanced sample of
items mapping the content domain
for the variable.
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RELIABILITY
Is the consistency with which it
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Types of Reliability
1. Test of Stability
2. Test of Equivalence
3. Test for Internal Consistency
4. Test for Item Analysis
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Test of Stability
The stability of an instrument is the extent
to which similar results are obtained on
two separate administrations
An assessment of an instruments stability
involves procedures that evaluate testretest reliability
The comparison is performed objectively
by computing a reliability coefficient
(correlation coefficient) which is a numeric
index of the magnitude of the tests
reliability
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Test of Stability
The possible values for a correlation coefficient
range from -1.00 through 0.00 to +1.00
(+) relationship = ( )
( - ) relationship = ( )
(0.00) no relationship
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Test of Equivalence
The degree to which two instruments
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Data Presentation:
Tabular
Textual
Graphical
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Ever-married
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Never-married
4
Total
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2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
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Graphical Presentation of
Data
90
80
70
60
East
West
North
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40
30
20
10
0
1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
4th Qtr
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DATA ANALYSIS
Presents the statistical design used
(if applicable) and the method of
analysis done by the researcher
Inferential Statistics
(Laws of Probability, hypothesis
testing)
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement - assignment of numbers to represent
the amount of attribute present in an object according
to rules
Nominal data: used to classify objects or numbers
according into categories
e.g. gender (1 Male 2 Female), hair color, marital
status
Ordinal data: used to show relative ranking of objects
or events on an attribute
e.g. (3)self-assisted, (2)partially assisted, (1)totally
assisted
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Descriptive Analysis
To describe and synthesize data obtained
1. Frequency Distribution arrangement of scores fr.
highest to lowest (or lowest to highest) and the no. of
times the value was obtained
2. Measures of Central Tendency
Mean computing average; point at which the sum of
deviation is 0; equal to the sum of scores divided by
the no. of scores
Median - counting average; point in the numerical
scale above which and below which 50% of the cases
fall
Mode inspecting average; most popular value
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Approach
Phenomenological Analysis
Methods for Descriptive Phenomenology:
Colaizzi (1978)
Giorgi (1985)
Van Kaam (1966)
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Phenomenological Analysis
Identification of Essential Themes
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Analysis of Ethnographic
Data
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METHODOLOGICAL
LIMITATIONS
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Recommendations
In the light of the findings the following
recommendations were made:
For the nursing service:
The nursing service should conduct
training programs where nurses can be
taught skills (e.g. communication skills,
assessment, etc. necessary to give
effective sexual health care to patients.
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Dissemination Phase
Oral Presentation
Written Report
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