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Need for Cognition,

Innovation and Leadership in
Africa
September 2015

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Laras Career Journey Case
Study
Employees dont leave companies; they leave
managers

The case of Lara Ukeje

KPMG

Shell

Procter and Gamble

Is Lara a badly behaved employee, an employee with

the wrong attitudes or a victim of bad managerial
styles?

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The 3 Research Constructs

Motivatio
n

Researc
h
Questio
n
Attitud
e

Manageria
Manageria
ll Style
Style

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Employee Motivation
Exploring Theories

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Employee Motivation - Prelude

The word Motivation stems from the Latin word motivus

which is a form of the word movere which means to move

In laymans parlance, therefore, the difference between being

motivated and unmotivated, then, is whether or not the subject
in question is moving

Different scholars have defined motivation in different ways:

Peteromode (1991) defined motivation is a prepotent state that

energises and guides behavior

Zedeck and Blood (1974) defined motivation is a predisposition to

act in a specific, goal-directed way

Mathis and Jackson (1982) defined motivation is an emotion or

desire operating on a persons will and causing that person to act

Odusina (1992) defined motivation is the will to perform

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Needs, Motivation and Behavior

Behavior
Human
Needs

Motivatio
n

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The Motivational Process

Need deficiencies

Need deficiencies
reassessed by the
employee

Search for ways

to satisfy needs

Rewards or
punishments

Goal directed
behavior
Performance
(evaluation of
goals
accomplished)

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Types of Employee Motivation
Financial

Nonfinancial

Salary

Job
security

Benefits

Work-life
balance

Allowance
s

Recognitio
n

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Theories of Motivation
McGregors
Theory X and
Y

Ouchis
Theory Z

Herzbergs 2Factor Theory

Vrooms
Expectancy
Valence
Theory

Maslows
Hierarchy of
Needs Theory

Locke &
Lathams
Goal-Setting
Theory

Control
Theory

McClellands
Achievement
Theory

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McGregors Theory X and Y
Theory X

Theory Y

People are indolent and

unwilling to work
except forced to do so

Work is as natural as play or

enjoyment to man

Money is the only

motivating factor for
man

Recognition, participation, respect,

fair play, good working conditions and
relationships also matter to man

People are innately lazy

People are loving and creative

People shy away from

challenges and
competition

The talents and creative potentials of

man must be properly tapped and
utilized

People require force to

switch to action

Force and coercion are discouraged in

order to achieve results

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Ouchis Theory Z

Dr. William Ouchis Theory Z focused on increasing employee

loyalty to the company by providing a job for life with a strong
focus on the well-being of the employee, both on and off the job.

According to Ouchi, Theory Z management tends to promote:

Stable employment

High productivity

High employee morale and satisfaction

The secret to Japanese success, according to Ouchi, is not

technology, but a special way of managing people.

This is a managing style that focuses on a strong company

philosophy, a distinct corporate culture, long-range staff
development and consensus decision-making

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Herzbergs 2-Factor Theory
Motivators (Satisfiers)

Hygiene Factors
(Dissatisfiers)

Recognition

Salary (money)

Achievement (work itself)

Good supervisor-subordinate
relationship

Responsibility

General working conditions

Individual Growth

Promotion and status

Advancement

Job security

Work itself

Company procedures

Satisfiers or motivators can bring about job satisfaction but

even if they are absent, they would not cause dissatisfaction
Once hygiene factors are absent, they will cause
dissatisfaction

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Vrooms Expectancy Valence
Theory

Expectancy
Effort
Performance of
a goal
Self-efficacy
Goal difficulty
Perceived
control

Instrumentality

Valence

Performance of
a goal
Outcome
Pay increase
Promotion
Recognition
Sense of
accomplishmen
t
Commissions

Outcome
Reward
-1 = Avoiding
the outcome
0 = Indifferent
to the outcome
+1 = Welcomes
the outcome

Motivational
Force
Expectancy x
Instrumentality
x
Valence

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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Self
Act
uali
zati
Morality, creativity, lack of prejudice,
on
acceptance of others
&
Ful
fill
me
Self-esteem, self-confidence, respect
Self-Esteem
and
nt
of others
Status
NeNeeds
eds
Belonging and Social Needs

Safety and Security Needs

Physiological Needs

Friendship, family and sexual

intimacy
Security of body,
employment, health,
morality
Food, breathing,
water, sleep,
excretion

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Locke and Lathams GoalSetting Theory

High Specificity

High Difficulty

High Motivation

Quantitative

Hard (but not

impossible)

Direction of
attention and action
Exertion of higher
levels of effort
Development of
action plans to
achieve goals
Persistence in the
face of difficulty

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Control Theory

Weak vs. Strong Bonds:

Deviance is a result from extensive exposure to certain

social situations where individuals develop behaviors that
attract them to avoid conforming to social norms.

Social bonds are used in control theory to help individuals

from going after these attractive deviations.

Weak bonds between the individuals and society free

people to deviate or go against the norms, or the people
who have weak ties would engage in crimes so they could
benefit, or gain something that is to their own interest.

Strong bonds make deviance more costly. Deviant acts

appear attractive to individuals but social bonds stop most
people from committing the acts.

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Control Theory

Containment theory, as developed by Walter Reckless

in 1973,

Behavior is caused not by outside stimuli, but by what a

person wants most at any given time.

According to the control theory, weaker containing social

systems result in more deviant behavior.

According to Travis Hirschi, humans are selfish beings,

who make decisions based on which choice will give
the greatest benefit.

Most people do not want to go to work, but they do,

because they get paid, to obtain food, water, shelter, and
clothing.

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McClellands Acquired Needs
Theory
Need for Power
Personal power
Institutional power

Need for Affiliation

Customer service
Client interaction

Need for Achievement

Work alone
Work with other high
achievers

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Need for Achievement

People in this category enjoy:

Doing better than competitors

Attaining or surpassing a difficult goal

Solving a complex problem

Carrying out a challenging assignment successfully

Developing a better way to do something

Moderate risk taking

Need for immediate feedback

Accomplishments

Preoccupation with tasks

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Need for Power

People in this category:

Are argumentative

Are assertive in group discussions

Enjoy work

Place a high value on discipline

Enjoy status and recognition

Enjoy winning arguments

Enjoy competition

Enjoy influencing others

Need personal prestige

Need a better personal status

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Need for Affiliation

People in this category:

Fear rejection

Need approval

Need stable interpersonal relationships

Want to belong

Dislike uncertainty

Prefer cooperation

Are likely to agree with group decisions

See friends more frequently

Marry earlier

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McClellands Acquired Needs
Theory
Need for Power
Personal power
Institutional power

Need for Affiliation

Customer service
Client interaction

Need for Achievement

Work alone
Work with other high achievers

A Fourth Need?

+A Fourth Need: Need for

Cognition
Exploring the Theories

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Hippocrates 4 Humors Theory
(c.460 370 b.c.e.)
Fluid

Part

Humor

Character Element

Yellow bile

Spleen

Choleric

Irritable

Fire

Black bile

Gall
bladder

Melancholi
c

Depressed

Earth

Blood

Liver

Sanguine

Optimistic

Air

Phlegm

Lungs

Phlegmatic Calm

Water

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16 Personalities - MBTI/David
Keirsey
Artisan (SP)

Rational
(NT)

Idealist (NF)

Guardian
(SJ)

ESFP
Performer

ENTJ Field
Marshall

ENFJ Teacher

ESTJ
Supervisor

ESTP Promoter ENTP Inventor

ENFP
Champion

ESFJ Provider

ISFP
Composer

INTJ
Mastermind

INFJ Counselor

ISTJ Inspector

ISTP Crafter

INTP Architect

INFP Healer

ISFJ Protector

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4 Social Styles by Tracom Group
Slow paced
Detail-oriented

Friendly
Warm

Efficient
Objective

Analytical

Driving

Amiable

Expressiv
e
Creative
Unfocused

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4 Domains of Strengths by
Clifton
Executing
(9)

Influencing
(8)

Relationship
Building (9)

Strategic
Thinking (8)

Achiever
Arranger
Belief
Consistency
Deliberative
Discipline
Focus
Responsibili
ty
Restorative

Activator
Command
Communica
tion
Competition
Maximizer
SelfAssurance
Significance
Woo

Adaptability
Developer
Connectedn
ess
Empathy
Harmony
Includer
Individualiz
aton
Positivity
Relator

Analytical
Context
Futuristic
Ideation
Input
Intellection
Learner
Strategic

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Comparison
Hippocrate MBTI
s

Social
Style

Clifton
Strengths

McClelland

Sanguine

SP
(Artisans)

Expressive

Influencing

Need for
Power

Phlegmatic

SJ
(Guardians
)

Amiable

Relating

Need for
Affiliation

Choleric

NT
(Rationals)

Driver

Executing

Need for
Achievement

Melancholic

NF
(Idealists)

Analytical

Strategic
Thinking

Need for
Cognition

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Need for Cognition
Exploring Theories

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Questions

Should McClellands theory be amended to include a

fourth need?

What is High Need for Cognition?

How is it acquired?

What are its behavioral characteristics?

What are its effects on society?

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Need for Cognition

Cacioppo, John T.; Petty, Richard E.; Feinstein, Jeffrey A.; Jarvis, W.
Blair G. (March 1996). "Dispositional Differences in Cognitive
Motivation: The Life and Times of Individuals Varying in Need for
Cognition". Psychological Bulletin 119 (2): 197253. doi:
10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.197 .

They defined the need for cognition as:

An individuals tendency to "engage in and enjoy thinking" (p.116)

and

The tendency to "organize, abstract, and evaluate information"

(p.124)or,

The "tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors",

An "intrinsic motivation to engage in effortful cognitive endeavors

and exercise their mental faculties(p.197),

An "intrinsic motivation for effortful thought"

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Need for Cognition (NFC)

Cacioppo, John T. & Petty, Richard E. (1982).

The need for cognition.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 42
(1) 116131 (doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116)

This is a personality variable which reflects the extent to

which individuals are inclined towards efffortful cognitive
activities

Dole, J.A. & Sinatra, G.M. (1998). Reconceptualizing

Change in the Cognitive Construction of Knowledge.
Educational Psychologist, 33, (23), 109128.

Increased appreciation of debate

Idea evaluation

Problem solving

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Need for Cognition (NFC)

Cohen, A.R., Stotland, E., & Wolfe, D.M., (1955). An

Experimental Investigation of Need for Cognition. Journal
of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51(2), 291294.

The need for cognition has also been defined as:

The individuals need to organize his experience

meaningfully

The need to structure relevant situations in meaningful,

integrated ways

The need to understand and make reasonable the

experiential world

If this need were frustrated, it would generate feelings of

tension and deprivation that would instigate active efforts
to structure the situation and increase understanding

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Need for Cognition (NFC)

Cohen, A.R., Stotland, E., & Wolfe, D.M., (1955). An

Experimental Investigation of Need for Cognition.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51(2), 291
294.

Even in structured situations, people high in NFC see

ambiguity and strive for higher standards of cognitive
clarity

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Why we should care about
Need for Cognition

Rise of Asian economies due to innovation

Innovation as a competitive strategy for African

economies (CEO Forum, 2013)

African leaders need to be more innovative (Omobola

Johnson, 2013)

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Conclusion

Looking at McClellands theory, it may be debated that

Need for Cognition is another major need which has to
be considered in terms of:

How it is acquired

Behavioral characteristics

Effects on society

In Africa, we need to encourage high need for cognition

among current and potential leaders in order to
increase the rate of innovation

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Proposed Research Topic

High Need
for
Cognition

Innovative
Leadership

Developme
nt in Africa