Consumer Motivation

Consumer Behavior: A Framework

Ten Key Concepts

Concept of
Motivation
Consumer needs
Operant
conditioning
Classical
conditioning
Vicarious learning

Opponent-process
theory
Optimumstimulation level
theory
Reactance theory
Perceived risk
Consumer
attributions

What is Motivation?

Motivation refers to an activated

state within a person that leads to
goal-directed behavior.

It consists of the drives, urges,

wishes, or desires that initiate the
sequence of events leading to a
behavior.

Motivation begins with the presence of a

stimulus that spurs the recognition of a need.
Need recognition occurs when a perceived
discrepancy exists between an actual and a
desired state of being

Needs can be either innate or learned.

Needs are never fully satisfied.
Feelings and emotions (I.e., affect) accompany
needs

Expressive needs involve desires by

consumers to fulfill social and/or aesthetic
requirements.
Utilitarian needs involve desires by
consumers to solve basic problems (e.g.
filling a cars gas tank).

The Structure of Emotions

Ten Fundamental Emotions People

Experience:
Disgust
Interest
Joy
Surprise
Sadness
Anger
Fear
Contempt
Shame
Guilt

Some General Theories of

Motivation

Maslow hierarchy: physical, safety,

belongingness, ego, and self-actualiation
McClellands Theory of Learned Needs

Achievement motivation is seeking to get ahead, to

strive for success, and to take responsibility for
solving problems.
Need for affiliation motivates people to make friends,
to become members of groups, and to associate with
others.
Need for power refers to the desire to obtain and
exercise control over others.
Need for uniqueness refers to desires to perceive
ourselves as original and different.

Classical Conditioning

A neutral stimulus,
such as a brand
name, is paired
with a stimulus that
elicits a response.
Through a
repetition of the
pairing, the neutral
stimulus takes on
the ability to elicit
the response.

The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a

previously neutral stimulus which
is repeatedly paired with the
eliciting stimulus.
The unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
is an eliciting stimulus.
The conditioned response (CR) is
the response elicited by the CS.
The unconditioned response (UCR)
is the reflexive response elicited by
the unconditioned stimulus.

Classical Conditioning
Relations
Unconditioned/Secondary Stimulus Unconditioned Response
Flag

Emotions

Pairing

Political
candidate
Conditioned Stimulus

Emotions
Conditioned Response

Requirements for Effective

Conditioning

The neutral stimulus should precede in

time the appearance of the
unconditioned stimulus.
The product is paired consistently with
the unconditioned stimulus.
Both the conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus are highly
salient to the consumer.

Applications of Classical
Conditioning

Applications: communications--advertising,

public relations, personal selling.

Goal: identify powerful positive stimulus
and associate brand with it.
Examples of powerful, emotion causing
stimuli:
beautiful, sexy people
patriotic themes, religious symbols
Music, beautiful scenes
Also, negative stimuli can be associated
with competitors.
Credit card insignia may elicit spending
responses

Operant Conditioning . . .
. . . is the process in which the
frequency of occurrence of a bit of
behavior is modified by the
consequences of the behavior.

If positively reinforced, the likelihood of

the behavior being repeated increases.
If punished, the likelihood of the
behavior being repeated decreases.

Reinforcement & Influencing

Behavior

A reinforcer is anything that occurs

after a behavior and changes the
likelihood that it will be emitted again.

Positive reinforcers are positive rewards

that follow immediately after a behavior
occurs.
Negative reinforcers are the removal of
an aversive stimulus.

Secondary reinforcers . . .
. . . are a previously neutral stimulus
that acquires reinforcing properties
through its association with a primary
reinforcer.

Over a period of time, previously neutral

stimuli can become secondary
reinforcers.
In marketing, most reinforcers are
secondary (e.g. a product performing
well, a reduction in price)

A Punisher . . .
. . . is any stimulus whose
presence after a behavior
decreases the likelihood of the
behavior reoccurring.

Extinction & Eliminating

Behaviors

Once an operant
response is
conditioned, it will
persist as long as
it is periodically
reinforced.

Extinction is the
disappearance of
a response due to
lack of
reinforcement.

Schedules of
Reinforcement . . .
. . . determine if a behavior is
reinforced after a certain number of
repetitions or after a certain length
of time has passed.
Example. Slot machines use a
variable schedule based upon
number of pulls of handle.

Discriminative Stimuli . . .
. . . are those
stimuli that occur
in the presence of
a reinforcer and
do not occur in its
absence.
Example: point of purchase
display is a discriminative
stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination
and Generalization

Stimulus discrimination occurs when an

organism behaves differently depending on
the presence of one of two stimuli. Goal of
differentiation is to cause stimulus
discrimination.

Stimulus generalization occurs when an

organism reacts similarly to two or more
distinct stimuli. Goal of knock-off brands is
to use stimulus generalization.

Shaping Consumer
Responses . . .
. . . is creating
totally new operant
behaviors by
selectively
reinforcing
behaviors that
successively
approximate the
desired instrumental
response.

Vicarious Learning . . .

. . . is the
phenomenon
where people
observe the
actions of others to
develop patterns
of behavior.

Three important ideas:

People are viewed as symbolic

beings who foresee the probable
consequences of their behavior.
People learn by watching the actions
of others and the consequences of
these actions (i.e. vicarious
learning).
People have the ability to regulate
their own behavior.

Factors Increasing a
Models Effectiveness

The model is physically attractive.

The model is credible.
The model is successful.
The model is similar to the observer.
The model is shown overcoming
difficulties and then succeeding.

Three Major Uses of

Social-Learning Theory

A models actions can be used to

create entirely new types of behaviors
A model can be used to decrease the
likelihood that an undesired behavior
will occur
The model can be used to facilitate
the occurrence of a previously learned
behavior

Midrange Theories of
Motivation

Opponent-Process Theory
Optimum Stimulation Levels
The Desire to Maintain Behavioral
Freedom
The Motivation to Avoid Risk
The Motivation to Attribute
Causality

Opponent-Process Theory
. . . explains that two things occur when a person
receives a stimulus that elicits an immediate
positive or negative emotional reaction:
The immediate positive or negative emotional
reaction is felt.
A second emotional reaction occurs that has a
feeling opposite to that initially experienced.
The combination of the two emotional reactions
results in the overall feeling experienced by the
consumer.
Explains addictive behaviors
Explains primingthe effects of a small exposure
to a stimulus.

Optimum Stimulation
Level
. . . is a persons preferred amount of physiological
activation or arousal.

Activation may vary from very low levels (e.g. sleep)

to very high levels (e.g. severe panic).
Individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum
level of stimulation and will take action to correct the
level when it becomes to high or too low.
Accounts for high vs. low sensation seeking people.
Accounts for variety seeking
Accounts for hedonic consumptionI.e., the need of
people to create fantasies, gain feelings through the
senses, and obtain emotional arousal.

The Desire to Maintain

Behavioral Freedom

Psychological reactance is the motivational

state resulting from the response to
threats to behavioral freedom.

Two types of threats can lead to reactance:

Social threats involve external pressure from other

people to induce a consumer to do something
Impersonal threats are barriers that restrict the ability
to buy a particular product or service

Frequent in marketing: e.g., pushy salesperson

Scarcity effects: scarce products are valued
more. Limited time offer, limited supply.

The Motivation to Avoid

Risk

Perceived risk is a consumers perception

of the overall negativity of a course of
action based upon as assessment of the
possible negative outcomes and of the
likelihood that these outcomes will occur.
Perceived risk consists of two major
concepts - the negative outcomes of a
decision and the probability these
outcomes will occur.

7 Types of Consumer
Risks.

Financial
Performance
Physical
Psychological
Social
Time
Opportunity Loss

Factors Influencing Risk

Perception

Characteristics of the persone.g.,

need for stimulation
Nature of the task

Voluntary risks are perceived as less

risky than involuntary tasks.

Characteristics of the productprice

Salience of negative outcomes

Six risk-reduction
strategies

Be brand loyal and

consistently purchase
the same brand.
Buy through brand
image and purchase a
quality national brand.
Buy through store
image from a retailer
that you trust.

Seek out information

in order to make a
well informed
decision.
Buy the most
expensive brand,
which is likely to
have high quality.
Buy the least
expensive brand in
order to reduce
financial risk.

The Motivation to Attribute

Causality
Attribution theory describes the processes
through which people make determinations of
the causality of action.
Internal attribution is when a consumer decides
that an endorser recommended the product
because he or she actually liked the product.
External attribution is when a consumer
decides that an endorser recommended the
product because he or she was paid for
endorsing it.

Augmentation-Discounting
Model

Discounting occurs if external pressures exist that

could provoke someone to act in a particular way
- so actions would be expected given the
circumstances.
The augmenting principle states that when a
person moves against the forces of the
environment to do something unexpected, the
belief that the action represents the persons
actual opinions, feelings, and desires is increased.
Fundamental Attribution error: One
consistent finding is that people are biased to
make internal attributions to others.

Applications of attribution
theory

endorsers: seek to get consumers to

perceive internal motives for making
endorsement.
satisfaction: seek to get consumers to
perceive external reasons for product
problem.
sales promotion: find ways to avoid
consumers attributing the cause of the
purchase to the sale rather than to the
excellence of the product.

Managerial Applications of
Positioning/differentiation:
use discriminative stimuli
Motivation

distinguish one brand from another.

Environmental analysis: identify the reinforcers and
punishers that impact consumers; identify factors that
influence risk perception.
Market research: measure motivational needs (e.g.,
McClellands needs and need for arousal), measure risk
perception.
Marketing mix: use motivational needs to design
products (e.g., safe cars) and to develop promotional
strategy that meets needs. Develop messages to
influence consumer attributions. Use in-store
promotions to prime consumers.
Segmentation: Segment market based upon
motivational needs.