Analysis & Control of Knock in SI Engines

P M V Subbarao
Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department

Measures to Avoid
Uncontrollable Combustion.

The Knock in SI Engines

Knock in gasoline engines is one of the major challenges to
design an engine with higher thermal efficiencies.
Without knock, an engine can be designed to have a higher
compression ratio, giving higher efficiency and power output.
The demand to design engines closer to the allowable knock
limit with consequential reductions in safety limits is highly
appreciated.
The phenomenon is characterized by excessively high pressure
amplitudes with stochastic occurrence.
The phenomenon occurs independent of the mixture formation
process in both natural aspirated and turbo charged engines.
This phenomenon is a fundamental issue of modern SI engine
design methods.

The Reason for the Birth of Knock

The end-gas autoignites after a certain induction time which is
dictated by the chemical kinetics of the fuel-air mixture.
If the flame burns all the fresh gas before auto-ignition in the endgas can occur then knock is avoided.
Therefore knock is a potential problem when the burn time is
long.

A Geometrical Problem turned into A Chemistry

..

Compression
Ratio
5:1
6:1
7:1
8:1

Quality Brake Thermal Efficiency

72
81
25 %
87
28 %
92
30 %

Requirement
-

Fuel : The Resource is the Culprit : Knock Scale

To provide a standard measure of a fuels ability to resist knock, a
scale has been devised by which fuels are assigned an octane
number ON.
The octane number determines whether or not a fuel will knock in
a given engine under given operating conditions.
By definition, normal heptane (n-C7H16) has an octane value of
zero and isooctane (C8H18) has a value of 100.
The higher the octane number, the higher the resistance to knock.

 Blends of these two hydrocarbons define the knock resistance

of intermediate octane numbers: e.g., a blend of 10% nheptane and 90% isooctane has an octane number of 90.
A fuels octane number is determined by measuring what
blend of these two hydrocarbons matches the test fuels knock
resistance

Fuel Knock Scale

To provide a standard measure of a fuels ability to resist knock, a

scale has been devised by which fuels are assigned an octane
number ON.
The octane number determines whether or not a fuel will knock in a
given engine under given operating conditions.
By definition, normal heptane (n-C7H16) has an octane value of zero
and isooctane (C8H18) has a value of 100.
The higher the octane number, the higher the resistance to knock.
Blends of these two hydrocarbons define the knock resistance of
intermediate octane numbers: e.g., a blend of 10% n-heptane and
90% isooctane has an octane number of 90.
A fuels octane number is determined by measuring what blend of
these two hydrocarbons matches the test fuels knock resistance.

Octane Number Measurement

Two methods have been developed to measure ON using a standardized
single-cylinder engine developed under the auspices of the Cooperative
Fuel Research (CFR) Committee in 1931.
The CFR engine is 4-stroke with 3.25 bore and 4.5 stroke, compression
ratio can be varied from 3 to 30.
Research
Inlet temperature (oC)
Speed (rpm)
Spark advance (oBTC)
Coolant temperature (oC)
Inlet pressure (atm)
Humidity (kg water/kg dry air)

52
600
13

Motor
149
900
19-26
(varies with CR)

100
1.0
0.0036 - 0.0072

Note: In 1931 iso-octane was the most knock resistant HC, now there are
fuels that are more knock resistant than isooctane.

Octane Number Measurement

Testing procedure:
Run the CFR engine on the test fuel at both research and motor
conditions.
Slowly increase the compression ratio until a standard amount of knock
occurs as measured by a magnetostriction knock detector.
At that compression ratio run the engines on blends of n-hepatane and
isooctane.
ON is the % by volume of octane in the blend that produces the stand.
Knock
The antiknock index which is displayed at the fuel pump is the average of
the research and motor octane numbers:
Antiknock index

RON MON
2

Note the motor octane number is always lower because it uses more
severe operating conditions: higher inlet temperature and more spark
advance.
The automobile manufacturer will specify the minimum fuel ON that will
resist knock throughout the engines operating speed and load range.

Knock Characteristics of Various Fuels

Formula

Name

CH4
C3H8
CH4O
C2H6O
C8H18
Blend of HCs
n-C7H16

Methane
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Isooctane
Regular gasoline
n-heptane

Critical r

RON

MON

12.6
12.2
7.3

120
112
106
107
100
91

120
97
92
89
100
83

For fuels with antiknock quality better than octane, the octane number
is:

ON

100 28.28 mT

1.0 0.736 mT 1.0 1.472 T 0.035216 T

where mT is milliliters of tetraethyl lead per U.S. gallon

2 1/ 2

Fuel Additives
Chemical additives are used to raise the octane number of gasoline.
The most effective antiknock agents are lead alkyls;
(i) Tetraethyl lead (TEL), (C2H5)4Pb was introduced in 1923
(ii) Tetramethyl lead (TML), (CH3)4Pb was introduced in 1960
In 1959 a manganese antiknock compound known as MMT was introduced to
supplement TEL (used in Canada since 1978).
About 1970 low-lead and unleaded gasoline were introduced over toxicological
concerns with lead alkyls (TEL contains 64% by weight lead).
Alcohols such as ethanol and methanol have high knock resistance.
Since 1970 another alcohol methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) has been
added to gasoline to increase octane number. MTBE is formed by reacting
methanol and isobutylene (not used in Canada).

Future Antiknocking Additives

The aromatics, toluene and xylene are the most likely candidates for a good
solvent to use as an antiknock additive/octane booster.
They are already present in gasoline and no adverse effects due to adding more
are apparent.
Organo Silicon Compounds Under Study

Octane Number Requirement of a Vehicle

The actual octane requirement of a vehicle is called the Octane
Number Requirement (ONR).
This is determined by using series of standard octane fuels that
can be blends of iso-octane and normal heptane ( primary
reference ), or commercial gasolines.
The vehicle is tested under a wide range of conditions and
loads, using decreasing octane fuels from each series until
trace knock is detected.
The conditions that require maximum octane are full-throttle
acceleration from low starting speeds using the highest gear
available.

Engine Design Parameters Causing the Knock

The end-gas temperature and the time available before
flame arrival are the two fundamental symptoms that
determine whether or not knock will occur.
Engine parameters that effect these two fundamental
variables are:
Compression ratio, spark advance, speed, inlet pressure and
temperature, coolant temperature, fuel/air ratio.

Important Engine Variables

i) Compression ratio at high compression ratios, even before
spark ignition, the fuel-air mixture is compressed to a high
pressure and temperature which promotes autoignition.
ii) Engine speed At low engine speeds the flame velocity is
slow and thus the burn time is long, this results in more time
for autoignition.
However at high engine speeds there is less heat loss so the
unburned gas temperature is higher which promotes
autoignition.
These are competing effects, some engines show an increase
in propensity to knock at high speeds while others dont.

The Combustible Domain of IC Engine

Knock limit as a function of CR and ON for moderate

and high turbulence combustion chambers.

Effect of Initial Mixture Temperature on Available

Combustion Time to Avoid Knocking

Most Useful Engine Parameter to Control Knocking

Spark timing maximum compression from the piston occurs at TC.
Increasing the spark advance makes the end of combustion crank
angle approach TC and thus get higher pressure and temperature in the
unburned gas just before burnout.

P,T

x End of combustion

T
x Ignition

Knock Mitigation Using Spark Advance

Spark advance set to 1% below MBT to avoid knock
x

X crank angle corresponding

to borderline knock

1% below MBT

x
x
x

Auto Sparking Strategy

Effect of Fuel-air Dilution

Set spark timing for MBT, leaner mixture needs more spark advance since
burn time longer.
Along MBT curve as you increase excess air reach partial burn limit (not all
cycles result in complete burn) and then ignition limit (misfires start to
occur).
Ignition
limit

Partial burn limit

Complete burns in all cycles
MBT spark timing
Partial
burn regime

Why Damage due to Knocking

There are several theories about what it is that causes the damage
on the engine during knocking conditions.
The most accepted is that it is caused by heat transfer .
When knocking conditions occur, the piston and the walls of the
combustion chamber are exposed to a great deal of additional heat
which results in overheating of these parts.
As a result, the thermal boundary layer at the combustion chamber
wall can be destroyed.
This causes increased heat transfer which might lead to certain
surfaces causing pre-ignition .
Substantial knock can damage the engine and is stressful to the
driver and is therefore the most important limitation for SI
engines.
In order to control the knock it is sometimes necessary to regulate
away from the most efficient operating point.

Knock Behavior and Conceptual Formulation

The knock phenomenon to be investigated is characterized by
excessively high pressure amplitudes nearby or direct at the
knock limit.
Due to this damaging knocking cycles, an efficient engine
operation at the knock limit is impossible, due to the risk of
severe engine damage.
To characterize the knock behavior of an SI engine with wide
open throttle (WOT) the control range (CR) of a knock control
system will subsequently be introduced as an index.
The CR is defined as the advance ignition angle between the
knock limit (KL) and the damage limit (DL) of a specific
engine operation point

CR DL KL

Engine Management Systems

Engine management systems are now an important part of the strategy to
reduce automotive pollution.
The good news for the consumer is their ability to maintain the efficiency of
gasoline combustion, thus improving fuel economy.
The bad news is their tendency to hinder tuning for power.
A very basic modern engine system could monitor and control: mass air flow,
fuel flow,
ignition timing,
exhaust oxygen ( lambda oxygen sensor ),
knock ( vibration sensor ),
EGR,
exhaust gas temperature,
coolant temperature, and
intake air temperature.
The knock sensor can be either a nonresonant type installed in the engine
block and capable of measuring a wide range of knock vibrations ( 5-15 kHz
).
A resonant type that has excellent signal-to-noise ratio between 1000 and
5000 rpm.

Knock Sensor
Knock Sensors generate a voltage
when vibration is applied to them
utilizing the piezoelectric effect.
Generated voltage is proportional to
the acceleration .
Due to the vibration, a counter
weight inside the sensor is applying
pressure on the piezo element, this
pressure creates an electric charge in
the piezo element which is the
output signal of the sensor.
Tuned to engine knock frequency
(typically 6-8kHz).

Location of Knocking Sensor

The knock sensor is located on the engine block, cylinder head, or the intake
manifold.
This is because the function of this sensor is to sense vibrations an engine
creates.
The PCM uses this signal to alter the ignition timing and prevent detonation.
It will compare this information with its preset tables to identify an engine
knock or ping.
If a ping is sensed it will retard the timing to protect the engine from this
damaging pre-ignition.

Knock Sensor Voltage Generation

Knock Sensor Circuit

Once signs of detonation are detected (i.e. knocking), the knock
sensor sends a voltage signal to the engine management
computer which retards the spark timing slightly to avoid
detonation.

Knock Control

Benefits
Vehicle engines work more efficiently and produce more
power when operating near the detonation limit.
Although simple, knock sensors allow optimum engine
performance and protect the engine from potential
damage caused by detonation.