NNPC FSTP Technicians

Fundamentals of
Electricity
Course Code: FY7W 04
Lesson 6

Contents

Resistance & Resistors

Performance Objectives
Upon completion of this Course, students will be able to:
Give examples of materials which are used as conductors
Give examples of materials which are used as insulators
Recognise the 4 factors which determine resistance

Explain how the length of a conductor affects its resistance

Explain how the CSA (thickness) of a conductor affects its
resistance
Explain how the material used as a conductor affects its
resistance
Explain resistivity values
Perform calculations to determine the resistance of a conductor
Explain the effects of temperature change on conductors
Explain the effects of temperature change on insulators

Resistance
All materials have electrical resistance.
Conductors have low
resistance and insulators have high resistance. The table lists some
materials which are used as conductors and insulators
Conductors

Insulators

Silver

Rubber

Copper

Insulating oil

Aluminium

Flexible plastics (P.V.C)

Gold

Silicon rubber

Brass

Bakelite

Iron

Laminated plastic

Lead

Paper (treated with oil)

Nickel

Mica

Tungsten

Glass

Nichrome

Ceramics

Carbon

Dry air

Some practical uses of some of

these materials are shown here

Factors That Determine

Resistance
The resistance of a conductor is determined by four
factors:
~ Length
~ Cross-sectional area (CSA)
~ Material
~ Temperature
IF ANY OF THESE FOUR FACTORS ARE CHANGED,
THE RESISTANCE WILL CHANGE

Factor 1 ~ Length

If the length is increased then the resistance increases. If the

length is decreased then resistance decreases.
The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly proportional to the
length of the conductor.

In the sketch below the 3 conductors are made of the same material
Note how the resistance varies in proportion to the length

Factor 2 ~ Cross-sectional Area

(CSA)

When a length of wire is cut at 90, the end of the wire can be
seen, and is called the Cross Sectional Area (CSA) of the wire or
conductor. Because the cross-section is an area, it is measured
in mm2 (square millimetres)

We use the CSA of wires to identify the size of the wire, i.e.: the
size of wires or cable conductors is given in mm2

The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the

CSA (thickness) of the conductor.

Factor 2 ~ Cross-sectional Area

(CSA)
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the CSA
(thickness) of the conductor. This means that when the CSA
(thickness) of the conductor is increased then the resistance of the
conductor decreases. When the CSA (thickness) of the conductor
is decreased then the resistance of the conductor increases.
In the sketch below the 3 conductors are the same length & of the
same Material. Note how the resistance varies.

Factor 2 ~ Cross-sectional Area

(CSA)
Remember: R is inversely proportional to CSA.
When the cross-sectional area goes up, the resistance goes down.
When the cross-sectional area goes down, the resistance goes up
In the drawing below the length is the same for both conductors

Factor 3 ~ Material
Most metals are good conductors, and non-metals
like rubber, glass, plastic etc. are good insulators.
Good conductors have low resistance and good
insulators have high resistance
The resistance of a conductor or insulator depends on
the material
The resistivity for each material never changes
The symbol to represent resistivity is ; a Greek letter
pronounced "RO
Resistivity values in the table are shown in ohmmetres (-m).
These values are very small.
Resistivity values are often given in micro ohmsmillimetre (-mm)

Resistivity Table
Material

Resistivity (ohm metre)

Silver

0.000 000 016

Copper

0.000 000 017

Aluminium

0.000 000 028

Iron

0.000 000 100

Lead

0.000 000 219

Calculating Resistance
The three factors which determine the resistance of a
conductor are used in the formula:

R
a

Where:R = Total resistance of the conductor in ohms.

= Resistivity of the conductor material in ohms-metre.
l = Length of the conductor in metres.
a = Cross-sectional area of the conductor in metres
Resistance (R) = Resistivity() x Length (l)
Cross-Sectional Area (a)

In symbols and units:

R (ohms) =

(ohm / metre) (metre)

2
a(metre )

Calculations
A conductor 100 metres long has a cross-sectional area of one square millimetre.
Calculate the resistance if the conductor is made of:
(a) Copper, (b) Aluminium.
Calculation (a) Copper

R
a

for copper = 0.000 000 017-m.

ofconductor = 100m.
a of conductor = 0.000 001m2

where

Put values into formula :

R=

R
a

0.000 000 017 100

0.000 001

The resistance of a 100m copper conductor = 1.7

Calculations
Calculation (b) Aluminium

where

R
a

for aluminium = 0.000 000 028- m.

of conductor = 100m.
a of conductor = 0.000 001m2

Put values into formula :

R=

R
a
0.000 000 028 100
0.000 001

The resistance of a 100m aluminium conductor = 2.8

Both the copper and aluminium conductors are the same CSA and length.
The material is the only thing which is different.

Conclusions from the Two

Calculations
The copper conductor has a lower resistance (1.7 ) than the aluminium
conductor (2.8 ). This is because the resistivity of copper is lower than the
resistivity of aluminium. Therefore, copper is a better conductor than aluminium.
Materials with low resistivity values are good conductors. Materials with high
resistivity values are bad conductors, but good insulators. The table lists some
insulating materials that have a high resistivity. These materials are commonly
used as insulators in electrical devices and equipment.

Material

Resistivity (ohm-metres)

Mica
Insulating oil

1 000 000 000 000 000 -m

1 000 000 000 000 -m

Glass
Ceramics

100 000 000 000 -m

10 000 000 000 -m

PVC

100 000 000 -m

Conclusions from the Two

Calculations
The formula used to calculate the resistance of
insulators (mica, glass, PVC, etc.) is the same
formula used to calculate the resistance of a
conductor.

R
a

The difference is that we are looking for a high

resistance (R) in an insulator and a low resistance (R)
in a conductor.

Factor Four ~ Temperature

The length, CSA and material of a conductor are selected for
the job by the engineer or electrician.
Temperature can vary.
Temperature affects the resistance of both conductors and
insulators depending on how hot or cold they are.
A change in temperature will cause a change in the
resistance of a conductor.
When temperature goes up the resistance of a conductor
goes up.
When temperature goes down the resistance of a
conductor goes down
ALL METAL CONDUCTORS HAVE A POSITIVE
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT.

Factor Four ~
Temperature & Conductors
The amount of change in resistance due to temperature
is different for each material. The change in the
resistance of a conductor due to temperature is listed in
"temperature coefficient of resistance" tables.
The job of a conductor is to carry current easily.
Therefore, a conductor needs low resistance. High
temperatures increase the resistance of conductors. A
conductor carries electricity more easily at low
temperatures. Therefore, the temperature must be
considered when choosing a conductor for a particular
job.

Factor Four ~ Temperature &

Insulators
A change in temperature will cause a change in the
resistance of an insulator. However, the resistance of
an insulator is inversely proportional to the
temperature
If temperature goes up, the resistance of an insulator
goes down.
If temperature goes down, the resistance of an
insulator goes up.
INSULATORS HAVE A NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT

Factor Four ~ Temperature &

Insulators
The job of an insulator is to prevent the flow of current
through the insulator. Therefore, high temperatures
decrease the resistance of insulators. An insulator
prevents the flow of current better at low
temperatures. Therefore, the temperature must be
considered when choosing an insulator for a particular
job.
Note:
Carbon, which is used as a conductor /
semiconductor, has a negative temperature coefficient.
Carbon is the only conducting material which has a
negative temperature coefficient

Review 1
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of
the conductor
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the CSA.
The resistance of a conductor depends on the material of the
conductor its resistivity
The resistance of a conductor can be calculated using the formula
where:

R
a

R = total resistance in ohms

= resistivity of material
of conductor
= length
a = cross-sectional area

Review 2
Temperature affects resistance
Metal conductors have a positive temperature coefficient.
Insulators have a negative temperature coefficient.
If temperature goes up, the resistance of a conductor
goes up.
If temperature goes up, the resistance of an insulator
goes down.
If temperature goes down, the resistance of a conductor
goes down.
If temperature goes down, the resistance of an insulator
goes up.