DCP 1172

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Chang-Sheng Chen
Topics Covered:
Introduction to Nonmonotonic Logic

Monotonic logic
Standard logic is monotonic:
once you prove something is true, it is true
forever
Monotonic Logic is not a good fit to reality
If the wallet is in the purse, and the purse in
is the car, we can conclude that the wallet is
in the car
But what if we take the purse out of the car?

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

Monotonic Logic
Given a collection of facts D that entail some
sentence s (s is a logical conclusion of D):
for any collection of facts D such that DD , D
also entails s.
in other words: s is also a logical conclusion of
any superset of D.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

Nonmonotonic Logic
In a nonmonotonic system:
the addition of new facts can reduce the
set of logical conclusions.
S is a conclusion of D, but is not
necessarily a conclusion of D+newfact.
Humans use nonmonotonic reasoning
constantly!

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

What is Non-monotonic Logic ?

To understand what nonmonotonic logic means
simple consider a standard example:
"all birds fly",
"Tweety is a bird",
"Does Tweet fly?".

The obvious answer is yes,

however what if later you learned that Tweety had a broken
wing, then the answer becomes no,
then what if you learned that tweet was an airplane pilot,
or had a jet pack, the answer can change again.

The important point is that as new information is

added the answers change

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

Nonmonotonic logic
Facts and rules can be changed at any time
such facts and rules are said to be dynamic

Prolog uses nonmonotonic logic

assert(...) adds a fact or rule
retract(...) removes a fact or rule
assert and retract are said to be extralogical
predicates

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

Intelligent Reasoning
One of the characteristics associated with
intelligent systems is adaptability - the ability
to deal with a changing environment.
Adaptation requires that a system be capable of
adding and retracting beliefs as new
information is available.
This requires nonmonotonic reasoning.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

Uncertainty
Another characteristic of intelligent systems is
the ability to reason under conditions of
uncertainty.
Another way of saying this: the ability to
reason with an incomplete set of facts.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

Can we implement inheritance using predicate logic?

Pat is a Bat.
Bats are Mammals.
Bats can fly.
Bats have 2 legs.
Mammals cannot fly.
Mammals have 4 legs.
How many legs does Pat have?

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

Inheritance
Reasoning about inheritance of properties
from one class to another:
Bird(x) Flies(x)
Clearly this is not a good rule, since we know
there are exceptions.
Bird(x) Normal(x) Flies(x)
This provides for exceptions, although we must
define the conditions that imply Normal(x).

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Normal(x)
Assuming we know that:
Ostrich(x) Bird(x) ~Flies(x)
we can derive:
Ostrich(x) ~Normal(x)
So an ostrich is not a normal bird.
But what about all the the other things that are
birds?

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

11

Assumptions and Defaults

If there is no reason to believe otherwise, assume
that Normal(x) is TRUE.
The default is that everything is normal.
Now we only need to supply additional
information for exceptions.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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How to specify defaults

A number of formal systems have been developed to handle
defaults.
Nonmonotonic logics formalize unsound but reasonable
patterns of reasoning with uncertain, incomplete and
inconsistent information
Default Logic: New rule of inference
Abduction: New interpretation of implication.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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And More Logics To Think About!

Modal logic is useful for modeling reasoning about
knowledge, actions, time or obligations.
Epistemic logics apply the techniques of modal
logic to reasoning about knowledge.
Both individual and group knowledge is studied. The study
of epistemic logic is relevant to communication protocols
and cooperation.

Deontic logic formalizes normative modalities.

Deontic logic can be applied to representation of
normative (e.g. legal) knowledge.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Default Reasoning with Nonmonotonic Logic

Predicate logic with an extension:
a modal operator M which means is
consistent with everything we know.
Example:
x,y: Related(x,y) M GetAlong(x,y) WillDefend (x,y)

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Default Logic
New rule of inference:
A:B
C
If A is true and it is consistent to assume B, then C
is true.
Same idea, but now used as a rule of inference.
The new rule extends the knowledge base to a set
of plausible extensions, any new statement that
is true in all extensions is added.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Inheritance with Default Logic

Support for inheritance using Default Logic:
Mammal(x) : Legs(x,4)
Legs(x,4)
In the absence of contradictory information,
we can assume anything that is a mammal has 4
legs. (also need a rule stating that nothing can
have 2 different numbers of legs!)

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Abduction
Deduction ( ):
Given A(x) B(x) and A(x), we assume that B(x) is true.
Similar to forward reasoning
[Cf.] reasoning from the general to the particular (or from
cause to effect)

Abduction:
Given A(x) B(x) and B(x), we assume that A(x) is true.
Similar to backward reasoning

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Inheritance Diagrams
The book shows how we can also express default reasoning
using diagrams.

Flying Things

Normal Facts
Default

Ostriches

Birds

Fred

Tweety

Default

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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A Problem with NML

x: Republican(x) M ~ Pacifist(x) ~ Pacifist(x)

x: Quaker(x) M Pacifist(x) Pacifist(x)
Republican(Dick)
Quaker(Dick)

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Not quite this easy

Assuming we have some mechanism for
representing defaults, there can still be problems:

Is Nixon a pacifist?

Pacifists
Republicans

Quakers

Nixon
DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Nixon Dilemma
In general we must be prepared to deal with
multiple, possibly conflicting consequences of a
set of facts.
One simple idea - rank all the assumptions
and use rank to determine which to believe.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Other approaches to handling conflicting

assumptions.
Minimalist Reasoning
Assume that there are fewer true statements that
false statements in the world.
Find the smallest interpretation that satisfies all the
statements we know to be true.

Closed World Assumption: the only objects

that satisfy a predicate are those that must.
forces positive assertions to take priority over
negative assertions

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Closed world assumption

If we are told nothing about Tweety, other than Tweety is a
bird,
we assume that Tweety's feet are not in concrete, or
Tweety's wings are not broken, this is the closed world
assumption.
Humans regularly make assumptions and when new evidence
appears those assumptions can be changed, causing a different
answer, thus behaving nonmonotonicaly.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Using Probabilities
Probabilities can also be used determine which
defaults apply when contradictions arise.
Label each fact with a probability of being true.

There is a big split in the A.I. community over

whether symbolic methods or numeric
methods are best for handling these types of
issues.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Summary - Nonmonotonic logic vs. Probabilty

Nonmonotonic logic systems may miss the
importance of probability.
Probabilistic reasoners can also represent
uncertainty, and in a different (probabilistic)
way.
These systems exhibit a different set of
properties, with which nonmonotonic logic
can not effectively deal with.

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Nonmonotonic vs. Classical logic

Nonmonotonic logic does not have many
essential properties of classical first order logic,
specifically semi-decidability.
In classical logic, it is possible for a system
to halt (be stuck in an infinite loop) trying to
prove the negation of something for which
there is insufficient information.
In nonmonotonic default logic, rather than
return with no answer, the process returns
with a wrong (default answer).

DCP 1172, Ch. 6

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Summary - Nonmonotonic vs. Classical logic

First order logic although descriptively universal, is not
effective at handling large classes of problems.
If computers are going to handle common sense we need
to be able to have some form of default reasoning.
Nonmonotonic logic can be used in many domains where
classical logic falls short:
such as in the areas of default diagnosis, diagnosis,
action, and temporal logic.

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