Advanced fluid mechanics (II)

Course content:
1.Compressible Fluid Mechanics
Textbook: Modern Compressible Flow, 2nd ed. , by John
D Anderson, Jr.
Reference Book
1. Gas Dynamics, 2nd ed., by James. E. A. John
2. Compressible Fluid Dynamics by Philip A. Thompson
3. Elements of Gasdynamics by H. W. Liepmann and A.
Roshko
4. Compressible Fluid Flow. , 2nd ed. , by Michel A. Saad
Grading: 1. Homework 60%
2. Final Project 40%

Chapter I
1. Introduction and Review of Thermodynamics
What is Compressible Flow?
1. Const
2. Energy transformation and temperature change are
important considerations Importance of
Thermodynamics
e.q Flow of standard sea level conditions,M 2
8314
.300
RT
28
i CvT

2.2 105 J / kg
1
0.4

Specific internal energy

Specific kinetic energy U 2a

k

22

RT
2

i 0(k )

2 1.4

8314
300 2.5 105 J / kg
28

Chapter I
1.1 Definition of Compressible Flow
Incompressible flow compressibility effect can be
ignored.
1/ v
is the specific volume &

Compressibility of the fluid

1 dv
v dp

Note: dp(+) dv(-)

Physical meaning: the fractional change in volume of

the fluid element per unit change in pressure

Chapter I
1 v
T ( )T ......
v p

1 v
S ( ) S ......
v p

. Isothermal compressibility
..isentropic compressibility (speed

of sound)

Compressibility is a property of the fluid

Liquids have very low values of

10
2
for water =5 10 m / N

e.g T

at 1atm

Gases have high

e.g T
for air =10-5 m2/N at 1 atm,
Alternate form of
v

1 d
dp

d dp

Chapter I
d

For most practical problem 5%

compressible

General speaking
Ma >0.3

Compressible effect can not be ignored

Ma < 0.3 Incompressible flow

Chapter I

1.2. Regimes of compressible flow

Subsonic flow

Flow is
forewarned
of the
presence of
the body

Streamline deflected far upstream of the

body

Chapter I
Transonic flow

Mis less than 1 , but high enough to produce a

pocket of locally supersonic slow

If M is increased to slightly above 1 , the shock will

move to the trailing edge of the airfoil , and bow shock
appears upstream of the leading edge.

Loosely
Defined as
the

(Highly
unstable)

Transonic
regime

Chapter I
Supersonic Flow
M 1 Everywhere

(We will mostly

focus on this
regimes)

T , p,

Behind the
shock

+ Parallel the free stream flow is not forewarned of

presence of the body until the shock is encountered
+ Both flow of upstream of the shock and downstream of
the shock are supersonic
+ Dramatic physical and mathematical difference
between subsonic and supersonic flows.

Chapter I
Hypersonic Flow

T , p,
energy

High enough to excite the internal modes of

dissociate or even ionize the gas.

Real gas effect !!! Chemistry comes in

Chapter I
Incompressible flow is a special case of subsonic flow
limiting case M 0

V 0

V
M
a

Trivial , no flow

a
a , 0

Flow can be also be classified as

For
incompressibility
Viscous
Flows
inviscid

Viscous flow:
+ Dissipative effects : Viscosity, thermal conduction,
mass diffusion.
+ Important in regions of large gradients of V, T and C i
e.g. Boundary layer

Chapter I

Inviscid flows:
B.L

- ignore dissipative effects outside of

(We will treat this kind of flow )

Also consider the gas to be

Continuum
Mean free path

Kn

1
L

1.3 A Review of Thermodynamics

1.3.1 Ideal gas intermolecular force are
negligible

p RT
pv RT
p nkT

R*

R - specific gas constant

M

8314 (J/kg.mole.k)
Molecular
weights

38 1023 J / K
Boltzmann constant1.=

For air at standard conditions

R 8314
R

287 J /( kg .K ) 1716( ft.lb) /( slug. 0 R )

M 28.9

L > 10d , for most compressible flows

Isothermal compressibility
1 v
(
)T
v p
RT
v
RT
v
1 v
1
v
;(
)

(
)

T
T
p
p
p2
p
v p
p

Chapter I
1.3.2. Internal Energy and Enthalpy
-Translational
-Rotational No of collisions > 5 equilibrium
Statistical
-Vibration : No of collisions > 0 (100 ) equilibrium

Thermodynami
Add one more time scale or length scale
cs
+
Quantum
-Electronic excitation + nuclear
mechanics

If the particles of the gas (called the system) are rattling

about their state of maximum disorder, the system of
particle will be in equilibrium.

Chapter I
Return to macroscopic view continuum
Let e

be specific internal energy

Let h

be specific enthalpy

h e pv
For both a real gas and a chemically reacting mixture of
perfect gases.

e e(T , v)
h h(T , p)
Thermally perfect gas

e e T

h h T
de Cv dt
dh C p dt

Cv (T ), C p (T )

Chapter I
Calorically perfect gas

e CvT

Will be assumed in
h C pT
the discussion of this
class
C
Ratio of specific heat ,
C p , Cv are const p cons tan t
=1.4 for a diatomic gas
Cv
=5/3 for a monatoinic gas
Air, T<1000 K Calorically perfect gas
O2, N2, 1000<T<2500 Thermally perfect gas
Vibrational excited
O2 dissociate 2500<T<4000 K
N2 dissociate T>4000K

Consider caloriacally perfect gas + thermally

perfect gas
ecT
v

p RT

h c pT

C p Cv

Note:

h e pv

R
T
T
h

specific heat at constant pressure

Cp

Cv

specific heat at constant volume

v

Chapter I

Cv , C p , cons tan t

Perfect gas
Ideal gas

p RT

e e(T )
h h(T )

Cp
R
R
Cp Cv R; Cp
, Cv
Cv
1
1

1.3.3. First law of the thermodynamics

-Conservation of Energy
Consider a system, which is a fixed mass of gas separated
from the surroundings by a flexible boundary. For the time
being, assume the system is stationary, i.e., it has no
directed kinetic energy
e is state variable, de is an exact
differential depends only on the initial
q w de
and final states of the system
The work done on the system by the
An incremental surrondings
amount of heat
added to the
system across
the boundary

Chapter I
For a given de , there are in general an infinite
different ways (processes)
q w of
We will be primarily concerned with 3 types of
processes:
q 0
1. Adiabatic process
2. Reversible process no dissipative phenomena
occur, i.e,. Where the effects of viscosity, thermal
conductivity,
w pdvand mass diffusion are absent
(see any text on thermodynamic)
3. Isentropic process - both adiabatic & reversible
2nd law of thermodynamic

Chapter I
1.3.4 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamic
Define a new state variable, the entropy,
A contribution from the

q
q
irreversible dissipative
ds rev or ds siirev
T
T
phenomena of viscosity
thermal conductivity,
and mass diffusion
The actual heat added/T,
occurring within the
system
These
dissipative
phenomena
always
siirev 0
increase the entropy
For a reversible
process
q
ds
If the process is adiabatic,
q 0

2nd law

ds sirrev 0

In summary, the concept of entropy in combination with the 2 nd law

allow us to predict the direction that nature takes.

Chapter I
q qrev qrev Tds
Assume the heat is reversible,

1st law becomes

q pdv de Tds de pdv

h e pv dh de pdv vdp

Tds dh vdp
dh C p dT
For a thermally perfect gas,
ds C p

dT vdp

T
T

RT
If the gas also obey the ideal gas equation of pstate
ds C p

dT
dp
R
T
p
T2

dT
P2
R ln
Note
Integrate s2 s1 Cp
T
P
1
T1

C p C p (T )

Chapter I
If we further assume a calorically perfect
gas,
T2
P2
C p Cv R
s s Cp ln R ln
2

T1

P1

T2
v2
Cv ln R ln
T1
v1

Tds de pdv

1.3.5. Isentropic realtions

q 0
For an adiabatic process
process
q
ds

Hence, from eq

dsirrev 0

s2 s1
the entropy is constant.

and for a reversible

,i.e.,

dsirrev 0

Chapter I

T
P
P
T C /R T
0 C p ln 2 R ln 2 2 ( 2 ) p ( 2 ) 1
T1
P1
P1
T1
T1
1

T2
v2
v2
T2 Cv / R T2 1
0 Cv ln R ln ( )
( )
T1
v1
v1
T1
T1
1

2
T
( 2 ) 1
1
T1

P2

T
( 2 ) ( 2 ) 1
P1
1
T1

Outside B.L-Isentropic relations prevail

e.g.
T=1350
K
P=?
T=2500 K
P=15atm
M=12, Cp=4157 J/kg.K

P2
T
( 2 ) 1 0.0248
P1
T1

Cp
Cv

1.2

; Cv C p R 4157

8314
3464 J / kg.k
12

Chapter I
1.3.6. Aerodynamic forces on a Body
Main concerns : Lift & drag
Forces on a body of airfoil

-Surface forces: pressure

shear stress
-Body forces : gravity ;
electric-magnetic

Sources of aerodynamic force, resultant force and its

resolution into lift and drag

Chapter I

v uv
Let n & m be unit vectors perpendicular and parallel,
respectively to the element ds,

dF pn ds mds

F dF pds mds

uv
Lift L is the component of
F
V wind
relative

uv

Drag D is the component of

F
v
u
v
In our plot. L//y , D//
x

L pds
y

perpendicular to the
parallel

mds pds (resonable )

y

inviscid

Chapter I

D pds
x

mds

Pressure drag ->

wave drag, e.g
slender supersonic
shapes with shock
waves

Skin friction drag

-We consider only inviscid flows and both pressure and

skin-friction drags are important
-In the most cases, we can not predict the drag
accurately
For blunt bodies, Dp dominates
For streamlined bodies, Dskin dominates
with shock wave, Dwave drag dominate and Dskin can be
neglected
D can be predicted reasonably