Electronics Review

Basic Concepts

Atoms and Electrical Charge

Atoms are the building blocks of all matter.
They are made up of protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
Every electron has a small negative (-) charge.
Model of an Atom

The proton has the same amount of charge except

that it is the opposite, positive (+) charge.
Neutrons are electrically neutral and have no
charge.
The protons and neutrons are located in the center
of atoms forming what is called the nucleus and the
electrons revolve around them.

Interaction between electrons and protons

Interaction between electrons and protons

It is very important to know that particles of like charges will repel and
unlike charges will attract.
For example, two protons or two electrons will repel each other.
However, a proton and a electron will attract.
That is how the electrons are held inside the atom.
The attraction between the electrons and protons keeps the electrons
in orbit much like the gravitational attraction between the sun and its
planets.

Unit of Electricity
Electricity is the flow of electrons so it is necessary to measure the charge. The
basic unit for measuring charge is the coulomb or the letter C. 1 coulomb is
equal to the charge of 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons!!!
1C = 6.25x1018 electrons

Current and ampere

Electric current is the amount of electrons, or charge, moving past a point

every second. It is basically the speed of electron flow. The faster the
electrons flow, the higher the current.
Current is represented by the letter I. The basic unit for measuring current is
ampere. Ampere can be abbreviated to amp or just A.
1 amp = 1 coulomb/sec
Meaning for every amp, there are 6.25x1018 electrons moving past a point
every second.

Potential difference and voltage

Analogy electron with a marble

Energy potential

To make sense of voltage, we will need to make an analogy.

Lets imagine that electrons are represented by a marble on a flat plane. At
this point, the plane is level and the marble does not move. If the plane is
lifted at one side, the marble will roll down to the lower point.
In electricity, the high point is a point with lots of electrons and the low
point is a point with a lack of electrons. The high point is called the high
potential and the low point is the low potential. The difference between
these two points is called the potential difference. The larger the potential
difference, the larger the voltage.

Voltage can be thought of as the measure of the pressure pushing the

electrons. The higher the pressure, the higher the voltage.
Voltage is represented by the letter E. The basic unit of measure is volts or the
letter V. One volt will push 1 amp of current through 1 ohm of resistance.
Resistance will be discussed in a later section.

Power
Power is simply the amount of energy used or the amount of "work" a
circuit is doing.
Power is represented by the letter P. The basic unit for measuring power is
watts or the letter W. To find power, all you need is a simple equation:
P=EI
or Power equals voltage times current.
For example, if
E = 9V
I = 0.5A
then
P = 9 * 0.5
P = 4.5W

Resistance
When an electron is knocked out of an atom, it will fly off and hit another atom.
If the electron strikes the atom with enough force, it will knock off another
electron. The atom that was just knocked off will hit another atom and so forth.
Note that every time an electron strikes another, it is transferring its energy.
Some of the energy is converted into heat every time it is transferred. The
voltage will drop as the energy is transferred over long distances. Thus a long
wire has a higher resistance than a short wire.
Some materials - such as copper and silver - does not hold on to its electrons
very tightly. Therefore it doesn't require much energy to knock off an electron.
These materials are called conductors and has a very low resistance to electron
flow.
Materials such as clay and plastics hold on to their electrons more tightly than
conductors. It takes more energy to knock off an electron from these materials.
These materials are called insulators and has a high resistance to electron flow.
Resistance is represented by the letter R. The basic unit of measure is ohm or
the symbol (Greek omega).

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Ohm's Law
- The relationship between Current, Voltage, and
Resistance.
The German physicist, George Simon Ohm, established that voltage in
volt, electrical resistance in ohms, and ampereres flowing through any
circuit are all related. Ohmss law states:
It requires 1 volt to push 1 ampere through 1 ohm of resistance.
Ohm law camn also be sated as asimple formula to calculate one value of
an electrical circuit if the other two are known.
I=E/R
Where:
I= Current in ampere (A)
E= Voltage in volt (V)
R= Resistance in ohms ()

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SI UNITS
The system of units used in
Technology and Science is the
Systeme Internationale dunites
(International system of units).
Usually abbreviated to SI units and
is based on the metric system. This
was introduced in 1960 and is now
adopted by the majority of countries
as the official system of
measurement. The basic units in
the SI system are listed in the table
to the right with their symbols.

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Schematic Diagram
A schematic diagram shows how each component connect with another. It is
a simple and easy to read outline of the circuit. Each type of component has
a unique symbol and a name (usually 1-2 letters).

A simple schematic diagram

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Components and
Circuit Details

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BATTERIES
Batteries come in all shapes and
sizes. They store electrical charge
and as we all know when they are put
into an electronic device such as a
portable radio, they provide the
power. The usual battery sizes are
seen opposite.

Typical Battery Symbols

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LEDs

Light Emitting Diodes (LED) are very rugged, they last a very long time and they
are an optical source. (A LIGHT SOURCE)
LEDs produce red, green, yellow, or orange light. They are used in a range of
products. Can you name any ?
Infrared LEDs are also available although light from this type cannot be seen by
the human eye. These are used in security devices.
LEDs are part of the diode family, consequently they must be connected the right
way round or current will not pass through. They are usually protected by a
resistor. Resistors are used in circuits because LEDs can be destroyed by
voltages over 3 volts.

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SWITCHES

Typical Switch Symbols

KEY
SWITCH
This switch is available
in different forms. They
provide limited security
as a key is required to
switch them on and
off.

PUSH SWITCH
These can be push to
make (push the switch
to allow the circuit to
work) or push to break
(push the switch to turn
off the circuit).

ROCKER
SWITCH
This switch is common
on many electrical
devices. For example
they are found on
computer units for
turning them on and off.

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TOGGLE
SWITCH

These are available in

miniature and
standard sizes. The
advantage of the
toggle switch is that
they can be extended
and operated by a
lever.

SLIDE
SWITCH

Can be stiff to
operate and does
not operate
smoothly.
Available in a
range of sizes.

REED /
MAGNETIC
SWITCH

This is a thin glass tube that

contains two thin strips of
metal (the reeds). When a
magnet is brought close to
the glass tube, the reeds
move together and make
contact and the switch is
turned on. The reeds open
again when the magnet is
removed. Reed switches are
common in alarm systems

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MICROSWITCH

Micro-switches can
be very small.
Usually they include
a small arm which
when pressed clicks.
They are very useful
and can be found on
many machines used a safety
switches.

TILT SWITCH

One of the most

common types of tilt
switch uses a blob of
mercury in a small tube.
When the tube is tilted
the mercury runs down
and forms a bridge
across the two contacts
turning the switch on.

PRESSURE
PAD / SWITCH

This is a soft flexible

switch available in
many sizes. It consists
of two flexible
conductive foil sheets
separated by a thin
felt, paper or foam
layer. If pressure is
applied the conductive
surfaces touch and the
switch is on

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INCANDESCENT LAMPS (BULBS)

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SERIES CIRCUIT

This is a called a series circuit. Current flows through each of the

bulbs in sequence. Current flows through bulb A, then bulb B and
finally bulb C. The more bulbs that are added, the less bright they
shine. It is possible to add so many bulbs that they do not light at all.
This is due to the resistance in each bulb.

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PARALLEL CIRCUITS

This is a parallel circuit. Current can flow through each of the bulbs
without first having to flow through any others.

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A SERIES / PARALLEL CIRCUIT

The circuit above is both series and parallel. If you look closely you
will see that the two bulbs are in series with each other whilst the
motors are an parallel. All the components provide a clear path for
the current.

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THE DIODE

A diode allows electricity to flow in one direction only and blocks the flow in the
opposite direction. They may be regarded as one-way valves and they are used
in various circuits, usually as a form of protection.
Generally, diodes do not conduct until the voltage reaches approximately 0.6 V,
this is called the threshold point. If the current becomes too high the diode may
crack or melt.
ZENER DIODES
Normally a current does not flow through a diode in the reverse direction.
The Zener Diode is specifically designed to begin conducting in the
opposite direction when the reverse voltage reaches a voltage threshold.
Zener diodes are sometimes used as a voltage sensitive switch.

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TYPICAL USES OF DIODES

REVERSE POLARITY
PROTECTOR

The diode in this circuit protects a radio or a

recorder. In the event that the battery or power
source is connected the wrong way round, the
diode does not allow current to flow. Electronic
devices can be damaged or even destroyed if the
polarity is reversed (positive and negative are
connected to the wrong terminals).

TRANSIENT PROTECTOR
When an inductor device such as a relay is turned
off a high voltage can be generated for a short time
(Dia 1). This voltage spike can damage the relay
and other components. However, the diode does
not allow current to pass through it in the wrong
direction and short circuits this spike.
The diode can also be used to protect a meter
from a reverse current (Dia 2).

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CAPACITORS (A mini rechargeable battery )

Capacitors are components that are used to store an electrical charge and are
used in timer circuits. A capacitor may be used with a resistor to produce a
timer. Sometimes capacitors are used to smooth a current in a circuit as they
can prevent false triggering of other components such as relays.
A capacitor is composed of two conductors separated by an insulating material
called a DIELECTRIC. The dielectric can be paper, plastic film, ceramic, air or a
vacuum. The plates can be aluminium discs, aluminium foil or a thin film of
metal applied to opposite sides of a solid dielectric. The CONDUCTOR DIELECTRIC - CONDUCTOR sandwich can be rolled into a cylinder or left flat

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HOW A CAPACITOR WORKS

When the circuit is switched on, the light
dependent resistor emits light and the capacitor
charges up. When the switch is turned off the LED
stills emits a light for a few seconds because the
electricity stored in the capacitor is slowly
discharged. When it has fully discharged it's
electricity the LED no longer emits light. If a
resistor is introduced to the circuit the capacitor
charges up more slowly but also discharges more
slowly. What will happen to the light ?
Electrolytic capacitors are polarised which
means they have a positive and negative lead
and must be positioned in a circuit the right
way round (the positive lead must go to the
positive side of the circuit).
They also have a much higher capacitance
than non-electrolytic capacitors

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UNIT OF CAPACITOR
Capacitors can be charged and discharged. The amount of charge that a
capacitor can hold is measured in Farads or the letter F. However, 1F is too
large for capacitors, so microfarads(F) and picofarads(pF) are used. micro
= 1/1,000,000 and pico = 1/1,000,000,000,000
So 100,000pF = 0.1F = 0.0000001F
DC current cannot flow through a capacitor since the dielectric forms an open
circuit. Capacitors come in all shapes and sizes and are usually marked with
their value.
Some values are marked in picofarads using three digit numbers. The first
two digits are the base number and the third digit is a multiplier.
For example, 102 is 1000 pF and 104 is 100,000 pF = 100 nF = 0.1 uF. .

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We will only be discussing two types of the most commonly used capacitors:
Ceramic and Electrolytic.
Ceramic capacitors are brown and has a disc
shape. These capacitors are non-polarized, meaning
that you can connect them in any way. To find the
value, you simply decode the 3 digit number on the
surface of the capacitor. The coding is just like the
resistor color codes except that they used numbers
instead of colors. The first 2 digit are the significant
figures and the third digit signifies the number of
zeros following the first two digits. These capacitors
are measured in pF.

Electrolytic Capacitors has a cylinder shape.

These capacitors are polarized so you must
connect the negative side in the right place. The
value of the resistor as well as the negative side is
clearly printed on the capacitor. These capacitors
are measured in F.

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RESISTORS

Resistors determine the flow of current in an electrical circuit. Where there is high
resistance then the flow of current is small, where the resistance is low the flow of
current is large. Resistance, voltage and current are connected in an electrical
circuit by Ohms Law.

Resistors are used for regulating current and they resist the current flow and the
extent to which they do this is measured in ohms (). Resistors are found in
almost every electronic circuit.
The most common type of resistor consists of a small ceramic (clay) tube
covered partially by a conducting carbon film. The composition of the carbon
determines how much current can pass through.

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47R means 47 ohms

5R6 means 5.6 ohms
6k8 means 6800 ohms
1M2 means 1 200 000
ohms
A common value is 'K'
which means one
thousand ohms.
Resistors are too small to have numbers printed on them and so they are
marked with a number of coloured bands. Each colour stands for a
number. Three colour bands shows the resistors value in ohms and the
fourth shows tolerance. Resistors can never be made to a precise value
and the tolerance band (the fourth band) tells us, using a percentage, how
close the resistor is to its coded value. The resistor on the left is 4700
ohms.

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RESISTORS
The color bands around the resistors are color codes that tell you its resistance
value. Recall that resistance is measured in ohms.
The tolerance bands indicates the accuracy of the values. A
5% tolerance (gold band) for example, indicates that the
resistor will be within 5% of its value. For most applications,
a resistor within 5% tolerance should be sufficient.
To get the value of a resistor, hold the resistor so that the
tolerance band is on the right.
The first two color bands from the left are the significant
figures - simply write down the numbers represented by the
colors. The third band is the multiplier - it tells you how many
zeros to put after the significant figures. Put them all
together and you have the value.

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RESISTORS IN SERIES AND IN

PARALLEL

Resistors in SERIES - When resistors

are connected in series, their values are
added together: R total=R1+R2
Resistors in PARALLEL -When
resistors are connected in parallel, their
total resistance is given as:
1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2
VARIABLE RESISTORS
Variable resistors have adjustable
values. Adjustment is normally
made by turning a spindle (e.g.
the volume control on a radio) or
moving a slider.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAPACITORS

AND RESISTORS
A simple circuit is shown shows four capacitors and resistors in parallel. On the
left hand side of the circuit an LED is seen, this is protected by a 300 ohm
resistor. As the switch is closed the capacitors can be seen to charge up and
the LED lights immediately. When the switch is opened the LED stays on for a
short time and then fades slowly. This happens because the each capacitor
has a charge of electricity. This is released slowly when the +9 volts is
switched off.
The total capacitance is
calculated by simply adding
the values of the capacitors
together

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LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark

sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes
as high as 1000 000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light
resistance drops dramatically.
When the light level is low the resistance of the LDR is high. This prevents
current from flowing to the base of the transistors. Consequently the LED
does not light.

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THE PRESET RESISTOR

Preset resistors are used in
circuits when it is necessary to
alter the resistance. Dark/light
and temperature sensors usually
have these components as the
preset resistor allows the circuit
to be made more or less
sensitive (they can be turned up
or down - reducing or increasing
resistance).

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The two circuits below are sensor circuits. The one of the left is a temperature
sensor and the one on the right is a light sensitive circuit. Increasing the value of
the preset resistor by turning the centre with a small screwdriver makes the circuit
less sensitive. For instance, the temperature sensor would require a higher
temperature and the light sensitive circuit would need more intense light before
they activated.

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THE THERMISTOR
An example of a thermistor is seen to the left. They are
made up of a mixture of sulphides or oxides or
sometimes metals such as copper, iron or cobalt. They
tend to be formed into a disc or a bead sealed with
plastic or glass.
They have great resistance at low temperatures but
when they warm up their resistance decreases rapidly.
Current can then flow through them. This makes them
ideal as one of the components for a temperature
sensor.

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When the thermistor is cool or cold the LED should not light because of the
high resistance.
Circuit explanation in detail:
When the thermistor is warmed up by the hair
drier its resistance drops, this will take a few
seconds. As its resistance drops current begins
to flow from positive 9 volts to negative 0 volts.
Current flows into the base of the transistors
allowing the LED to light.
The preset resistor can be turned up or down to
increase or decrease resistance, in this way it
can make the circuit more or less sensitive.

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A TYPICAL TEMPERATURE SENSOR

Example application of a simple temperature sensor. It operates in exactly the

same way as a light/dark sensor except that it has a component called a
thermistor rather than a LDR (Light Dependent Resistor). The thermistor's
resistance value changes when the temperature rises or falls. This triggers
the relay.
The preset resistor allows the person using the circuit to alter its sensitivity to
changes in temperature.

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POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
What are they - they can be used to split the voltage
of a circuit. They are widely used in electronic circuits
for setting and adjusting voltages - e.g. in radios,
games and toys. You may find that you need a supply
of 6 volts and you have a 9 volt battery, your only
option may be to make a potential divider.
If the resistor values are changed to 2K and 1K the
voltage will be 6v. The voltage at the centre is
determined by the ratio of the two resistor values
and is given by the formula:
V = supply voltage x R2/R1+R2
V= 9v x 2000
1000+2000
v = 9v x (2000/3000 ohms)
V = 9v x 0.6666666 ohms
V = 6v

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THE RELAY
A relay is an electromagnetic switch. In other words it is activated when a
current is applied to it. Normally a relay is used in a circuit as a type of switch
(as you will see below). There are different types of relays and they operate at
different voltages. When you build your circuit you need to consider the voltage
that will trigger it.
RELAY SYMBOLS

The main part of a relay is the

coil at the center. A small current
flowing through the coil in the
relay creates a magnetic field
that pulls one switch contact
against or away from another.
Putting it simply, when current is
applied to the contacts at one
side of the relay the coil allows
the contacts at the other side to
work.

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PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF RELAYS

This simple circuit activates the relay only when the LDR is dark (covered).
This could be used as part of an automatic animal feeder. For instance, if
the animal was fed at night the circuit above would activate the relay. A
second circuit, connected to the other side of the relay releases food into a
dish.

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PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF RELAYS

RAIN ACTIVATED ALARM
This circuit is simple in its operation, if it rains the relay is energised
(switched). This could be part of a rain detection system. The rain falls onto
a small sensor which allows current to flow from positive to negative. Current
also flows into the base of the transistors and the relay is energised. In turn,
a second circuit is switched on and the piezo buzzer sounds. This circuit
could be used to warn of rain so that the washing could be collected in
before it gets too wet.

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TRANSISTORS
Transistors can be regarded as a type of switch, as can many electronic
components. They are used in a variety of circuits and they are central to
electronics and there are two main types; NPN and PNP. Most circuits tend to
use NPN. There are hundreds of transistors which work at different voltages
but all of them fall into these two categories.

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TRANSISTORS
Transistors are manufactured in different shapes but they have three leads
(legs).
The BASE - which is the lead responsible for activating the transistor.
The COLLECTOR - which is the positive lead.
The EMITTER - which is the negative lead.
The diagram below shows the symbol of an NPN transistor. They are not
always set out as shown in the diagrams to the left and right, although the
tab on the type shown to the left is usually next to the emitter

The leads on a transistor may not always be

in this arrangement. When buying a
transistor, directions will normally state clearly
which lead is the BASE, EMITTER or
COLLECTOR.

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SIMPLE USE OF A TRANSISTOR

Diagram 'A' shows an NPN transistor which is often used as a type of switch. A small
current or voltage at the base allows a larger voltage to flow through the other two leads
(from the collector to the emitter).
The circuit shown in diagram B is based on an NPN transistor. When the switch is pressed
a current passes through the resistor into the base of the transistor. The transistor then
allows current to flow from the +9 volts to the 0vs, and the lamp comes on.
The transistor has to receive a voltage at its base and until this happens the lamp does
not light. The resistor is present to protect the transistor as they can be damaged easily by
too high a voltage / current. Transistors are an essential component in many circuits and
are sometimes used to amplify a signal.

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THE DARLINGTON PAIR

Transistors are an essential component in a sensor circuit. Usually transistors are
arranged as a pair, known as a DARLINGTON PAIR. It is very important that you
can identify this arrangement of transistors and state clearly why they are used.
A darlington pair is used to amplify weak signals so that they can be clearly
detected by another circuit or a computer/microprocessor.

A second transistor is added to the circuit, the circuit is now likely to

work as the original signal / current is amplified.

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TRANSISTOR FORMULAS
Transistors are used to amplify current and so in an examination you could
be asked to find the BASE current or COLLECTOR current or the GAIN.
The GAIN is simply the amount of amplification. The formulas and example
questions are set out below:

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1. If the collector current of a transistor is 0.12 amps and the gain is

40, what is the base current?

2. If the collector current of a transistor is 0.4 amps and the base

current is 0.002 amps, what is the current gain?

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DUAL TRANSISTOR MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUIT

A multi-vibrator circuit is a circuit that has identical components arranged on the left and
right hand sides. In the case of the example below, the two PNP transistors, the
capacitors and the LEDs are the key components. This circuit will trigger itself
repeatedly and in this way the LEDs flash alternately.
Increasing the value of the two electrolytic capacitors increases the time each LED
remains on/off. The transistors are general PNP type. It is important to protect the LEDs
and this is achieved by adding the 680R (or lower if necessary) fixed resistors.

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As the switch is pressed, the capacitors charge up and then discharge.

As one capacitor charges the other discharges. As the capacitors
discharge, each triggers the base of the transistor it is connected to. This
allows current to pass from the collector to the emitter and the LEDs
light, alternately.

52

THE THYRISTOR
A Thyristor (silicon controlled rectifier or SCR)
is a little like a transistor. When a small current
flows into the GATE (G), this allows a larger
current to flow from the ANODE (A) to the
CATHODE (C). Even when the current into
the gate stops the thyristor continues to allow
current to flow from anode to cathode. It
latches on.

53

A Steady Hand Game

The aim is to move the handle around the wire shape without touching it. If
the handle touches the wire a buzzer sounds. This is the type of game that
contains a thyristor circuit. When the handle touches the wire the buzzer will
sound until the reset push switch is pressed, even if the handle is moved
away from the wire.

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OTHER ELECTRONIC
COMPONENTS AND
SYMBOLS

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