Groundwater 1

Groundwater flows slowly through the voids between grains or the cracks in
solid rock. Much of our knowledge depends on field and laboratory
observations. Here, for example, is an experiment to measure head loss in an
aquifer.

Darcys Law
Henri Darcy established empirically that the energy
lost h in water flowing through a permeable
formation is proportional to the length of the
sediment column L.
The constant of proportionality K is called the
hydraulic conductivity . The Darcy Velocity VD:

VD = K (h/L)
and since Q = VD A ( where A = total area)
Q = KA (dh/dL)

1. Velocities small, V ~ 0, so:

Darcys Experiment

Piezometers before and

after sand. Pipe is full, so
flow rate is constant
2. Head difference doesnt change with inclination of the sand filter
3. Again, Darcy related reduced flow rate to head loss and length of
column through a constant of proportionality K,
V = Q/A = -K dh / dL

Darcys Data (One set of 10 experiments)

L
diam.
n
A

Experiment
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

0.58 m
0.35 m
0.38
0.096211 m2

Duration
(min)
25
20
15
18
17
17
11
15
13
10

Q
L/min
3.6
7.65
12
14.28
15.2
21.8
23.41
24.5
27.8
29.4

dp
(m)
1.11
2.36
4
4.9
5.02
7.63
8.13
8.58
9.86
10.89

Ratio
V/dp
3.25
3.24
3
2.91
3.03
2.86
2.88
2.85
2.82
2.7

Calc
K
(m/min)
0.019552
0.019541
0.018085
0.017568
0.018253
0.017224
0.017359
0.017214
0.016997
0.016275

K
cm/s
3.26E-02
3.26E-02
3.01E-02
2.93E-02
3.04E-02
2.87E-02
2.89E-02
2.87E-02
2.83E-02
2.71E-02

1.Darcy collected data with

his apparatus, then
4

Plotted it. Note the strong coefficient of determination R2 .

Darcys allows an estimate

of:

The velocity or flow rate moving within the aquifer

The average time of travel from the head of the aquifer to a
point located downstream
Very important for prediction of contaminant plume arrival

Confined Aquifer

Darcy & Seepage Velocity

Darcy velocity VD is a fictitious velocity
since it assumes that flow occurs across
the entire cross-section of the sediment
sample. Flow actually takes place only
through interconnected pore channels
(voids), at the seepage velocity VS.
Av voids

A = total area

Darcy & Seepage

Velocities

From the Continuity Eqn. Q = constant

Pipe running full means Inputs = Outputs

Q = A VD = AV Vs
Where:Q = flow rate
A = total cross-sectional
area of
materialAV = area of voids Vs =
seepage velocity VD = Darcy velocity
Since A > AV , and Q = constant, Vs > VD
Pinch hose, reduce area, water goes faster

Darcy & Seepage Velocity:

Porosity
Q = A VD = AV Vs ,therefore VS = VD ( A/AV)
Multiplying both sides by the length of the medium
(L) divided by itself, L / L = 1
VS = VD ( AL / AVL ) = VD ( VolT / VolV ) we get volumes
Where:
volume

VolT = total volume

VolV = void

By definition, Volv / VolT = n, the sediment

porosity
So the actual velocity:

VS = V D / n

Turbulence and Reynolds

Number

The path a water molecule takes is called a

streamline. In laminar flow, streamlines do
not cross, and the viscous forces due to
hydrogen bonds are important.
In turbulent flow acceleration and large scale
motion away from a smooth path is important
(this is the familiar inertial force F = ma)
and streamlines cross.
We could take the ratio of inertial to viscous
forces. When this number is large, inertial
forces are more important, and flows are
turbulent.
This ratio is known as the Reynolds number Re:

Viscosity
Viscosity is a fluids resistance to flow.
Dynamic viscosity , units Pas = Ns/m2,
or kg/(ms)is determined experimentally. If
a fluid with a viscosity of one Pas is placed
between two plates, and one plate is
pushed sideways with a shear stress of one
Pascal, it moves a distance equal to the
thickness of the layer between the plates in
one second.
Kinematic viscosity , is the dynamic
viscosity divided by the density. The SI unit
of is m2/s.

Reynolds: Inertial/Viscous
forces

Recall the ratio of Kinetic/Potential

Energy (KE/PE) is the Froude Number
Fr
Fr = V / sqrt( g L) we saw last time.

Limitations of Darcys
Equation
1. For Reynolds Number, Re, > 10 or where the flow
is turbulent, as in the immediate vicinity of pumped
wells.

Darcys Law works

water
for2.
1.0Where
< Re < 10

flows through extremely fine-grained

Q = KA (dh/dL)
q = Ky (dh/dL)
materials (colloidal clay)

Example 1
Q = KA (dh/dL)
The hydraulic conductivity
K is a velocity, length / time
and n = Vol voids/ Vol total

A confined aquifer has a source of recharge.

K for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and porosity n is 0.2.
The piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is
55 m and 50 m respectively, from a common datum.
The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m, and
the average width of the aquifer is 5 km = 5000m.
A piezometer is a small-diameter observation well used to measure the piezometric head of
groundwater in aquifers.
Piezometric head is measured as a water surface elevation, expressed in units of length.

Q = KA (dh/dL)

Example 1 Compute:

a) the rate of flow through the aquifer

(b) the average time of travel from the head of the
aquifer to a point 4 km
downstream

Example 1
Solution

Q = KA (dh/dL)

Cross-Sectional area= 30(5000) = 1.5 x 105 m2

Hydraulic gradient dh/dL= (55-50)/1000 = 5 x 10 -3
Find Rate of Flow for K = 50 m/day
Q = (50 m/day) (1.5 x 105 m2) ( 5 x 10-3)
Q = 37,500 m3/day
Darcy Velocity: V = Q/A
= (37,500m3/day) / (1.5 x 105 m2) = 0.25m/day

And

Seepage Velocity:
Vs = VD/n = (0.25) / (0.2) = 1.25
m/day (about 4.1 ft/day)
Time to travel 4 km downstream:
= (4000m) / (1.25m/day) =
3200 days or 8.77 years

This example shows that water moves

very slowly underground.
Lesson: Groundwater moves very slowly

Example 2

A channel runs almost parallel to a river, and they are 2000 ft apart.

The water level in the river is at an elevation of 120 ft . The channel

is at an elevation of 110ft.

A pervious formation averaging 30 ft thick and with hydraulic

conductivity K of 0.25 ft/hr joins them.

Determine the flow rate Q of seepage from the river to the channel.

ConfiningLayer

30ft

Aquifer

Example 2: Confined Aquifer

Consider 1-ft (i.e. unit) lengths of the river and
small channel.
Q = KA [(h1 h2) / L]

Where:
A = (30 x 1) = 30 ft2
= (0.25 ft/hr) (24 hr/day) = 6 ft/day
Therefore,
Q = [6ft/day (30ft2) (120 110ft)] / 2000ft
Q = 0.9 ft3/day for each 1-foot length