April 2005 BLDGCONST3

BUILDING
CONSTRUCTIO
N
III
HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE AND STEEL
CONSTRUCTION
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
3. HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE, PRE-STRESSED

CONCRETE AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION
Foundations Systems 3.1

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
3.1 FOUNDATION SYSTEMS (Deep and Shallow Foundation)

The foundation system transfers
the lateral loads on the
superstructure to the ground. The
horizontal component of these
lateral forces is transferred largely
through a combination of soil
friction on the bottom of footings
and the development of passive
soil pressure on the sides of
footings and foundation walls.
Foundation systems are classified
into two broad categories --shallow foundations and deep
foundations.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.1.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Shallow or spread foundations are employed when stable soil of
adequate bearing capacity occurs relatively near the ground surface. They
are placed directly below the lowest part of a superstructure and transfer
building loads directly to the supporting soil by vertical pressure. The types
of shallow or spread footings are:
1. Individual or isolated footings are spread footings supporting freestanding columns and piers.
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
a. Block or square footings
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
b. Stepped footings
c. Slope or pyramidal footings
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
2. Strip footings are the continuous spread footings of foundation walls.

Stepped footings are strip footings that change levels to accommodate a
sloping grade and maintain the required depth at all points around a building.
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
STRIP FOOTINGS
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
STEPPED FOOTINGS
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
3. Combined footings.
a. Combined footings. supporting two or more columns. This type of
footing is used where it is not possible to center the footing beneath its
supported column as in the case of columns located at or very near the
property line. In such case, the nearest interior column is selected and
a combined footing constructed under both columns.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
The footing is so designed so that the

center of gravity of the combined
loads passes through the center of
gravity of the footing area. Combined
column footings are usually
rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
b. Cantilevered footings. This type

of footing may be used in place of a
combined footing under the same
conditions. In this type of construction,
the footings of the exterior and interior
columns are connected by a tie-beam
or strap which is so extended to
support the exterior column. The top
of the beam or strap is usually placed
level with the top of the footings.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
c. Continuous footings.
These may be:
1. supporting a line of columns
2. supporting all of the columns by
strips at right angles to each
other.
L/4
L/5
L/4
L/4
L/4
L/5
They may be inverted slab or

inverted tee continuous
footings.
4. Mat or Raft Foundations
Mat foundations, like continuous footings are used on soil of low bearing
power where there is a tendency towards unequal settlement due to unequal
loading of soil. In this type of foundation all parts of the foundation are so tied
together so that they will act as one and assist each other in keeping level
and plumb.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Mat foundations may be divided into the following general classes:

1. Flat slabs of plain or reinforced
concrete
2. Beams or girders with a slab

underneath
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
3. Beams or girders with a slab on top
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
4. STEEL GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

When it is desired to avoid the deep excavation required for concrete and
masonry footings, and when the load has to be distributed over a wide
area of support, steel rails or beams are used to give the required
moment of resistance with a minimum of depth.
For steel-grillage foundations the foundation
bed should first be covered with a layer of
concrete not less than 6 in thickness and so
mixed and compacted as to be nearly
impervious to moisture as possible. The
beams are placed on this layer, the upper
surface brought to a line and the lower
flanges carefully grouted so as to secure an
even bearing. Subsequently, concrete should
be placed between and around the beams so
as to permanently protect them. The beam
must not be spaced so near as to prevent the
placing of concrete between them. The clear
space between the flanges of the top layer of
beams should not be less than 2 and should
be somewhat more for the lower layers.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
3.1.2
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Deep foundations are employed when the soil underlying a shallow

foundation is unstable or of inadequate soil bearing capacity. They extend
down through unsuitable soil to transfer building loads to a more
appropriate bearing stratum of rock or dense sand and gravel well below
the superstructure. The types of deep foundations are pile and caisson
foundations.
1. PILE FOUNDATIONS
A pile foundation is a
system of end bearing or
friction piles, pile caps, COLUMN LOAD
and tie beams for
transferring building loads
down to a suitable bearing
stratum.
LOAD BEARING WALL

REINFORCED
CONCRETE GRADE or
TIE BEAM
Building Protection
Systems
REINFORCED CONCRETE
PILE CAP
Pile Cap 1. A slab or connecting beam which covers the heads of a group of piles, tying them together so that the structural
load is distributed and they act as a single unit. 2. A metal cap which is placed, as temporary protection, over the head of
a precast pile while it is being driven into the ground.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
End bearing piles depend principally on the bearing resistance of soil

or rock beneath their feet for support. The surrounding soil mass provides
a degree of lateral stability for the long compression member.
Friction piles depend principally on the frictional resistance of a
surrounding earth mass for support. The skin friction developed between
the sides of a pile and the soil into which the pile is driven is limited by the
adhesion of soil to the pile sides and the shear strength of the surrounding
soil mass.
PILE CAPS
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
END BEARING
PILES
FRICTION PILES
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
SAMPLE OF PILE CAPS
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
A. WOOD PILES

Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Wood-pile Foundations. When it is

required to build upon a compressible
soil saturated with water and of
considerable depth, the most
practicable method of obtaining a
solid and enduring foundation for
buildings of moderate height is by
driving wooden piles. Wooden piles
are made from the trunks of trees and
should be as straight as possible, and
not less than 5 in diameter at small
end for light buildings, or 8 for heavy
buildings.
The piles are driven by means of a drop-hammer or with a steam-hammer,
a succession of blows being given with a block of cast iron or steel called
the hammer, which slides up and down; the uprights of the machine is
placed over the pile-driver. The machine is placed over the pile so that
the hammer descends fairly on its head, the piles being driven with the
small end down.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
In driving wooden piles with

a drop-hammer, the hammer
is generally raised by steampower and is dropped either
automatically or by hand.
The weight of the hammers
used for driving piles for
building foundations is
usually from 1,500 to 2,500
lb., and fall varies from 5 to
20 ft., the last blows being
given with a short fall. Steam
hammers are to a
considerable extent taking
the place of the ordinary
drop-hammers as they will
drive more piles in a day,
and with less damage to the
piles.
The steam-hammer delivers quick, short blows, from 60 to 70 to the minute,
and seems to jar the piles down, the short interval between the blows not
giving time for the soil to settle around them.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
In driving piles care should be taken to

keep them plumb, and when the
penetration becomes small, the fall
should be reduced to about 5 ft., the
blows being given by rapid
succession. Whenever a pile refuses
to sink under several blows before
reaching the average depth, it should
be cut off and another pile driven
beside it.
When several piles have been driven to a depth of 20 ft. or more or
refuse to sink more than in. under 5 blows of a 1200 lb. hammer falling
15 ft., it is useless to try them further, as the additional blows result only in
brooming and crushing the heads and points of the piles, and splitting
and crushing the intermediate portions to an unknown extent.
When the penetration is less than 6 in. at each blow the top of the pile
should be protected from brooming by putting on an iron pile ring, about 1
in. less in diameter than the head of the pile, and from 2-1/2 to 3 in. wide by
5/8 in. thick. The head should be chamfered to fit the ring.
Pile Ring also called a drive band; a steel band which encircles the head of a timber pile to prevent it from splitting when being
driven.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
In driving in soft and silty soils, the piles drive better with a square point. When
driven into compact soil, such as sand, gravel, or stiff clay, the point of the
pile should be shod with iron or steel. This is usually in the form of a cast
conical point about 5 in. in dia., secured by a long dowel with a ring
around the end of the pile.
Piles that are driven in or exposed to salt water should be thoroughly
impregnated with creosote, dead oil or coal-tar, or some mineral poison to
protect them from teredo or shipworm which will completely honeycomb
an ordinary pile in three or four years.
Piles should not be spaced less than 2 ft. on centers; usual spacing is from 2 to
3 ft. When long piles are driven closer than 2 ft. on centers, there is
danger that they may force each other up from their solid bed on bearing
stratum. Driving the piles close together also breaks up the ground and
diminishes the bearing power. Maximum allowable load on wood piles is
usually 20 tons.
The top of the piles should be cut off at or below the low water mark, otherwise
they will soon commence to decay. They should then be capped, either
with concrete, or with timber or steel grillage. The usual practice is to use
the reinforced-concrete cap, the method being to excavate 6 to 12 below
the tops and one foot outside of the piles. Concrete is then placed around
and above the piles. Approximately 3 above the top of the piles a layer or
reinforcement running in both directions is placed. Caps are usually 18 or
more in thickness.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy timber grillages may also be used for capping. These are bolted to
the top of the piles and the concrete footings laid on top of it. The
timbers for the grillages should be at least 10 x 10 in cross-section,
and should have sufficient transverse strength to sustain the load
from center to center of piles. They should be laid longitudinally on
top of the piles and fastened to them by means of driftbolts. The
advantages of timber grillage are that it can be easily laid and
effectually holds the top of piles in place. It also tends to distribute the
pressure evenly over the piles, as the transverse strength of the
timber will help to carry the load over a single pile, which for some
reason, may not have the same bearing capacity as the others.
Where timber grillage is used, it should be kept entirely below the lowest
recorded water line, as otherwise it will rot and allow the building to
settle.
Steel beams embedded in concrete are also sometimes used to distribute
the weight over piles, but this is too expensive a method to be
commonly used.
Driftbolt a short rod or square bar driven into holes bored in timber, for attaching adjacent sticks to each other or to piles; varies
from 1 to 2 ft (300 x 600 mm) in length; often provided with a head or with a sharpened end; also called a drift or driftpin.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
B. CONCRETE PILES
Concrete Piles. Concrete piles, either plain or reinforced, possess many
advantages over wooden piles and, in general, can be used in all places
where wooden piles can be driven. Concrete piles are generally used
where wooden piles would be subject to decay or deterioration by the
action of marine worms. They are especially advantageous for
foundations on land where the permanent ground water is at a
considerable depth. Wooden piles must cut of under water as, when
subjected to an atmosphere which is alternately wet and dry, they will
decay. This is unnecessary with concrete piles, and foundations under
such conditions need not start so low as would be the case if timber
piles were used.
In practice concrete piles are generally reinforced. Reinforced-concrete piles
are of two general types: those molded in place and those molded
before driving. Spacing for concrete piles usually from 2 6 to 4.
Concrete piles are extended at least 4 into the concrete of the footing,
and where a steel casing surrounds the pile, 3 to 4 in. of concrete is
required between the top of the piles and the footing reinforcement,
unless the casing is trimmed back at a distance, in which case the case
reinforcement is allowed to lie directly upon the butts of the piles.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
1. PRE-CAST PILES
Pre-cast Piles These are usually moulded
in a yard or at the site allowed to cure for 4
weeks before using. In driving, a pre-cast
pile is provided with a cast-iron point, and a
driving head is used in which a cushion of
sand, rope or other material is placed
between a driving block of wood and the
concrete in order to prevent the crushing of
the pile. Concrete piles are often sunk by
means of water-jet. This method is made
possibly by inserting an iron pipe in the
center of the pile.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
2. CAST-IN-PLACE PILES
Cast-in-place Piles Cast in place piles are constructed in the ground in
the position they are to occupy, and are often reinforced. Practically all
cast in place piles are covered by patents.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Cast-in-place piles may be formed by any of the following methods:

a. A hollow cylindrical steel tube usually furnished with a tight-fitting
collapsible steel core or mandrel, is driven into the soil. The core is then
collapsed and removed, and the steel shell filled with concrete. Thus
there is a shell or form for every pile, e.g. McArthur piles, Raymond piles
(this uses a No. 24 gauge shell in which a spiral of No. 3 wire is
encased). This is also commonly called a cased pile.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
A steel tube is fitted at the bottom with a driving point and is driven into the
ground to the required depth. Concrete is then poured into the hole thus
formed as the steel tube is gradually withdrawn. The driving point may be
either a conical cast-iron point that is left in place or a hinged cutting-edge
called an alligator point which opens as the tube is withdrawn, e.g.
Simplex piles. This is called an uncased pile.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
A steel pipe or shell is first driven into the ground. The steel driving core is
then removed and the bottom of the shell is filled with concrete to a height of
about 5 ft. from the bottom. Pressure is then applied to force out the concrete
into the surrounding soil as the core is withdrawn. These are known as
pedestal piles.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
C. STEEL PILES
Steel-pipe Piles. These are concrete-filled
steel pipes which are made to bear on
rock or hard pan. The pipes are generally
10 to 18 inches in diameter, having a
thickness of 3/8 to 5/8 inches. The pipe is
driven in sections with a steam-hammer
and, as additional sections are required,
these are attached to the driven section by
means of a cast-iron or steel internal
sleeve and re-driven.
When the pipe has reached its bearing level it is cleaned out by blowing or
dug out by means of augers or similar tools. The pipe is then pumped out
and concreted.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
D. COMPOSITE PILES
Composite Piles.
These are combination
timber and concrete or
steel and concrete piles.
They may be composed
of timber piles with
concrete coatings held
in position by steel
reinforcements in the
shape of expanded
metal or wire netting.
The latter are to be
considered as timber,
rather than concrete,
piles.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
2. CAISSON FOUNDATIONS
Caissons are cast-in-place, plain or reinforced concrete piers formed by
boring with a large auger or excavating by hand a shaft in the earth to a
suitable bearing stratum and filling the shaft with concrete. For this reason
they are also referred to as drilled piles or piers.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement 3.2
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
3.2 FOUNDATION WALLS, BASEMENT

CONSTRUCTION, CISTERNS
Foundation walls
provide support for the
superstructure above
and enclose a
basement wall or crawl
space partly or wholly
below grade. In
addition to the vertical
loads from the
superstructure,
foundation walls must
be designed and
constructed to resist
active earth pressure
and anchor the
superstructure against
wind and seismic
forces.
FOUNDATION WALLS
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement 3.2
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
BASEMENT WALLS
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement 3.2
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
SECTION OF CISTERN
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS

There may be short columns or long columns.
Short columns occur when the unsupported height is not
greater than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the
cross section.
Long columns occur when the unsupported height is more
than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the cross
section.
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
3.3.1 TYPES OF RC COLUMNS

Reinforced-concrete columns may be classified into five types:
1. Tied Columns. These are columns with longitudinal bars and lateral
ties. The ratio of the effective cross-sectional area of vertical
reinforcement to the gross column area should not be less than 1% nor
more than 8%, and should consist of at least 4 bars of a minimum size
of #5.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Lateral tiles shall be at least 3/8 (10 mm) diameter and shall be spaced
apart not over than 16 bar diameters, 48 tie diameters, or the least
dimension of the column. Where there are more than four vertical bars,
additional ties should be provided so that every longitudinal bar will be
firmly held in its designed position. The reinforcement for tied columns
shall be protected by a covering of concrete, cast monolithically with the
core, of at least 1-1/2 (38 mm) thickness.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
2. Spiral Columns. These are columns with longitudinal bars and closely
spaced continuous spiral hooping. For spiral columns, the ratio of the
area of the vertical reinforcement to the gross column area shall not
less than 1% nor more than 8%. The minimum number of bars shall 6,
and the minimum bar size shall #5.
The spiral reinforcement, with min

size of 3/8 shall consist of evenly
spaced continuous spirals held
firmly in place by at least three
vertical spacer bars. The center to
center spacing of the spirals shall
not exceed 3 (75 mm) nor be
less than 1-3/8 (35 mm) or 1-1/2
times the maximum size of the
coarse aggregate. Protective
covering for the column
reinforcement shall not be less
than 1-1/2 (38 mm).
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
3. Composite Columns where structural steel columns are embedded

into the concrete core of a spiral column.
4. Combined Columns where structural steel is encased in concrete of
at least 7 cm thick, reinforced with wire mess surrounding the column
at a distance of 3 cm inside the outer face of the concrete cover.
5. Lally Columns are fabricated steel pipes provided with flat steel
plates which holds a girder or girt, and is filled with grout or concrete
to prevent corrosion.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.3.2 DOWEL BARS
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Dowel bars are short bars used to

transfer the stress at the bottom of
the columns to the footings. When
dowel bars are used, there should
be at least one dowel bar for each
column bar. The total crosssectional area of dowels should not
be less than the cross-sectional
area of longitudinal reinforcement
in the column.
The dowels shall extend into the column and into the pedestal or footing not
less than 50 bars diameter for plain bars or 40 diameters for deformed bars.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
3.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS

3.4.1 SUSPENDED SLABS
In general, there are six types of reinforced-concrete floors systems:
1. One way solid slab and beam
2. One way joist slab or Ribbed slab
3. Two way solid slab and beam
4. Two way waffle slab
5. Two way flat plate
6. Two way flat slab
Each particular system has its distinct advantages, depending upon the
spacing, of columns, the magnitude of the loads to be supported, lengths
of spans, and the cost of construction. Although the arrangement of the
plan of a building frequently determines the column spacing,
approximately square bays are desirable. Column spacing of 20 ft., more
or less, has proved to be most economical, but this, of course, depends
on the type of floor construction to be used.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
1. ONE-WAY SLABS
Probably the most commonly used type or reinforced concrete
construction consists of a solid slab supported by two parallel beams,
the beams framing into girders, and the girders in turn framing into
columns. The reinforcement slabs runs in one direction only, from
beam to beam, hence the slab is known as one-way slab. The number
of beams in a panel depends upon the column spacing and the live
load to be supported. The beams are spaced uniformly and generally
frame into the girders at the center, third or quarter points.
This type of framing is called the beam-and-girder floor. It is readily
constructed and the formwork is simple. The one-way slab is
economical for medium and heavy live loads for comparatively short
spans, 6 to 12 ft. For light live loads, 40 to 60 psf, the spans may be
increased, but long spans for one-way slabs results in comparatively
large dead loads.
Heavy Reinforced
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Foundation Walls,
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The main tensile reinforcement (running along the short direction) in fully
continuous slabs are alternately bent up, usually at an angle of 30 to
45 degrees, at the fifth points of the span and extend over the supports
to the quarter points of the adjoining span. The remaining bars are
straight, placed in the bottom of the slab. For single span slabs the
bars are bent up at the quarter points.
Another method of placing the reinforcement is to place straight bars at the
bottom of the slab and the other straight bars at the top of the slab over
the supports. If the bent bars are used, bent bars from the adjoining
bars are extended over the supports, thus providing the same amount
of reinforcement over the supports as at mid-span.
In addition to the tensile reinforcement, temperature bars are also provided
running along the long direction. These serve to provide against the
effect of shrinkage and changes in temperature and also to distribute
possible load concentrations over larger areas. The size and spacing
of temperature bars depends upon the slab thickness.
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Foundations Systems
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Minimum protective covering for slab reinforcement is 20mm ().
Heavy Reinforced
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2. ONE WAY JOIST OR RIBBED SLABS

For medium span lengths with light or
medium live loads, ribbed slabs have
proved to have an economical type of
floor construction. They are not so
well suited to heavy concentrated
loads as the solid one or two-way
slabs. A one-way joist slab consists of
relatively small adjacent T-beams.
When the open spaces between the
webs or rings are filled with clay tile,
gypsum tile, concrete filler block or
steel forms, the floor system is called
a ribbed slab.
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Clay tile fillers are generally 12 x 12 in plan with depths of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
and 15 in. The usual practice is to place the tiles 16 o.c., thus
making the web 4 wide. The layer of concrete placed on top of the
tile is generally 2 or 2-1/2 in. thick. Reinforcement for this type of
construction may consist of two bars placed in the lower part of the
web, one bent and one straight, or of straight bars placed in the top
and bottom parts of the web.
Heavy Reinforced
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Metal tile fillers are frequently used for ribbed floors. This is commonly
known as tin-pan construction. The metal forms are usually 36 long,
with 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 in. depths. They are placed on centers in
such a manner as to make the web 4 to 7 in. wide at the lowest point.
Form widths are generally 20 or 30 in.; a common condition is a form
20 in. wide, placed 25 in. on centers, to make a web 5 wide at the
bottom.
The metal forms may be removed or left in place after supporting
formwork has been taken down. To provide a greater web area near
the supports, where the shearing stresses may exceed the allowable,
special metal cores with the sides tapered in plan are used. The
degree of tapering generally is such that the web is increased 4 in
width. As in the case of clay-tile fillers, a 2, 2-1/2, or 3 in. slab is
placed over the metal tile forms, the slab and web forming a Tsection.
Gypsum-tile fillers have the advantage of providing a relatively lightweight
ribbed with a flush ceiling. Although they are made in various sizes, a
common width is 19, placed 24 o.c., with webs 5 wide. When block
12 wide are used, they are placed 16 o.c., thus forming 4 wide
webs.
Heavy Reinforced
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3. TWO-WAY SLABS
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When a floor panel is square or nearly so, having beams or walls on four
sides, it is generally economical to use two sets of reinforcing bars
placed at right angles to each other. These bars in two directions
transfer the loads to the four supporting beams or walls. Slabs thus
reinforced are known as two way slabs or slabs supported on four
sides.
For square panels, with supports of equal rigidity, the live and dead loads
are distributed equally in both directions and the reinforcements are
the same each way. When the panel is oblong or rectangular, the
greater part of the load is transmitted by the transverse or short
reinforcement. If the length of the slab exceeds 1.5 times its width,
the entire load is usually assumed to be carried by the short
reinforcement, and the long reinforcement used for shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement only; hence the slab would become a
one-way slab.
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In determining the reinforcement of two-way slabs two strips of floor are

considered. One is middle strip, one half of the panel in width,
symmetrical about the panel center line, and extending through the
length of the panel. The other is the column strip, one half of the
panel in width and occupying the two quarter-panel areas outside the
middle strip. In placing the reinforcement it is advantageous to place
the bars in the short direction, carrying the greater load, under the
longer bars. Bars are bent up at fifth points and extend over the
supports of the quarter points of the adjoining slabs as is done for
one-way slabs.
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4. TWO WAY WAFFLE SLAB

A waffle slab is a two way concrete slab reinforced by ribs in two
directions. Waffle slabs are able to carry heavier loads and span longer
distances than flat slabs.
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5. TWO WAY FLAT PLATE.

A flat plate is a concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in two or
more directions and supported directly by columns without beams or
girders. Simplicity of forming, lower floor-to-floor heights, and some
flexibility in column placement make flat plates practical for apartment and
hotel construction.
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6. TWO WAY FLAT SLABS.

A flat-slab is a flat plate thickened at its column supports to increase its
shear strength and moment-resisting capacity. The slab is commonly
reinforced with bars running in two directions. This area of increased
thickness is called a drop panel or drop. The columns are generally square
in cross section, but rectangular or circular cross sections are also used.
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Flat-slab floors are economical in use of material and provide a rigid type of
construction. These floors are particularly suitable for industrial buildings
having large live loads and for buildings in which the columns capitals are
not objectionable. Among the advantages claimed for flat-slab floor are
the simplified formwork, better lighting due to the absence of beams and
girders, a saving in height for given clear story heights, a uniform surface
for suspending sprinkler systems, piping and shafting, and, because of
the absence of sharp corners, better resistance to fire.
The ratio of length to width of flat-slab panels should not exceed 1.33.
Thickness of slab without drop panels or through drop panel, if any, shall
not be less than L/36; thickness of slab with drop panels at points beyond
the drop panel should not be less than L/40. The side of diameter of the
drop panel shall be at least 0.33 times the span in the parallel direction.
The diameter of the column capital measured at the bottom of the slab or
drop panel (in feet) is generally taken between 0.20 and 0.25 L.
There are several methods of reinforcing flat-slabs and flat plates:
1. Two-way system. This system is the most commonly used and consists of two
sets of bars extending directly from column to column in both directions. Slabs are
square or rectangular.
2. Three-way system. The reinforcement extends from column to column, the
columns being placed at the corners of equilateral triangles; hence slabs are
triangular in shape.
3. Four-way system. The reinforcement extends both directly and diagonally between
columns in both directions. The slabs are square or rectangular.
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Construction
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3.4
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3.4.2REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

A beam may be defined as a structural member, resting on supports
usually at its ends, which supports transverse loads. The loads that act on
the beam, as well as the weight of the beam itself, tend to bend rather
than lengthen or shorten it. A girder is a term applied to a beam that
supports one or more smaller beams, as concentrated loads.
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Construction
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3.4
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Construction
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Beams may be classified as:

a. Simple beams. These are beams having a single span with a support
at each end, there being no restraint at the supports.
b. Cantilever beams. These are beams that are supported at one end
only, or they may be that portion of beams projecting beyond one of its
supports.
c. Continuous beams. These are beams resting on more than two
supports. The term semi-continuous is also frequently used in
reinforced-concrete. It refers to a beam having two spans with little or no
restraint at the two extreme ends of the beam. The end span of a
continuous beam, where little or restraint is provided at the end support,
is referred to as a semi-continuous beam.
Walls & Structural

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When a beam is subjected to a given load, the beam is bent downwards at

the middle, the lower part of the beam being elongated while the upper
part is compressed. The lower part of the beam is said to be in tension,
while the upper part is in compression. In reinforced-concrete design, it is
assumed that the compressive stresses is resisted by the concrete and
all tension resisted by the steel. Thus the reinforcement of a beam is
placed near the bottom of the section.
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At the supports, however, the upper surface of the beam becomes concave
downward; that is there is a reversal of stresses. The upper portion of the
beam is now in tension ( or the bending moment is said to change from
positive to negative). The section of a beam at which the bending moment
changes from positive to negative is called the point of inflection. The
exact position of inflection points depends upon the position and
magnitudes of the loads as well as the end conditions of the beams. For
continuous beams having equal spans and uniformly distributed loads, the
inflection point is considered to be one-fifth the clear span between faces
of support.
At this point some of the reinforcing bars are bent up at an angle of from 30 to
45 degrees and extend over the supports into the adjacent spans. The bent
up bars serve to resist the tensile stresses over the supports. Thus for
continuous beams with uniformly distributed loads the bars would be bent
up at one-fifth the clear span from the face of the supports and extend to
the quarter points of the adjacent span. Not more than half of the bears
should be bent up; the rest of the reinforcement extends straight through
the center of the supports.
Another method is to use separate straight bars in both the bottoms and tops
of the beams in place of bent bars. The slight cost in excess weight in this
arrangement over the combination of straight and bent bars is probably
balanced by the ease of preparing design and shop drawings, bill of
materials, and fabrication and placing of reinforcement. Bars not fabricated
according to drawings, or those lost and mislaid, are more easily replaced if
no bending is involved.
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In addition to the tensile and compressive stresses in a beam subjected to

bending, there are also inclined tensile stresses. If a concrete beam is
reinforced with longitudinal steel only, these diagonal stresses tend o
produce cracks which are vertical at the center of the span and become
more inclined as they approach the support where they slope towards the
center at an angle of about 45. The stresses that cause these cracks are
known as diagonal tension. To prevent failure due to diagonal tension
additional reinforcing bars are used.
Sloping bars placed at right angles to the direction of these cracks would be
one method of reinforcing for diagonal tension, but, although this is
sometimes done, it is not the most economical method. The usual
procedure is to add #3 or #4 bars, bent in the shape of the letter U, in
vertical positions at those places in the beam at which the diagonal
tension stresses require their use. When the stresses are sufficiently
large. W-shaped bars are used. These bent reinforcing bars are called
stirrups. They should always have hooks at the ends to provide
anchorage to resist the tensile stresses.
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Reinforcement used to resist shearing stresses is known as web

reinforcement. Ties are frequently used for web reinforcement in place of
stirrups. A tie is generally made of #3 bars, but it completely encircles the
longitudinal tensile steel instead of being U-shaped with hooks.
Although it is occasionally necessary to put in two or more layers of steel,
particularly in large girders carrying heavy loads, it is usually more
economical to slightly widen a beam, thereby permitting all of the main
tensile reinforcement to lie in the same plane. Minimum clear distance
between bars should not be less than the nominal diameters of the bars,
not less than 1 (25 mm), nor less than 1-1/3 times the maximum size of
the coarse aggregate. If more than one layer is used the clear vertical
distance between layers shall not be less than 1 (25 mm), and the bars in
the upper layer shall be placed directly above those in the bottom layer.
The following table is useful in selecting the proper width of beam given
number of reinforcing bars:
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3.4
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NUMBER OF BARS IN BEAMS

Maximum number of bars for beams of various widths
Width
6
8
14
2- #5
2 - #11
2 - #11
3 - #6
5 - #9
10
3 - #11
3 - #9
4 - #6
12
4- #11
4 - #9
5 - #6
6 - #7
6 - #4
7 - #4
Roof Decks
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An allowance of 1-1/2 (38 mm) for fireproofing is made outside the

reinforcement on each side of the beam, and there is also allowance for
#3 stirrups. It should be noted that this Table gives the maximum size of
bars. Thus, for instance, the Table indicates that 4 - #9 bars may be
used in a beam 12 in width. Obviously, four smaller bars, e.g., 4-#7,
may also be used for the same beam width.
Fireproofing for beams and walls is 1-1/2 (40 mm).
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3.4.3 TYPES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
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1. Rectangular beams
2. T beams. When a reinforced
concrete floor slab and its supporting
beam (or girder) are built at the same
time and thoroughly tied together, a
part of the slab may be considered to
act with upper part of the beam in
compression. This form of a beam is
called a T- beam.
3. Beam with Compression
Reinforcement. These are beams with
reinforcement in the compression as
well as the tension side of the beam,
hence they are also called double
reinforced beams. In this type of beam
no bent up bars are required. Beams
with compression reinforcement are
used when the cross-sectional
dimensions of the beam are limited by
architectural or structural conditions so
that there is an insufficient concrete
area for the compressive stresses.
Heavy Reinforced
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4. Cantilever Beams. The tensile

reinforcement is located at top of the
beam and inverted U-stirrups are
provided.
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5. Hollow box girders. These are

double reinforced beams used for long
spans. In order to reduce the dead
load (the weight of the beam) it is
hollowed in the center of the section.
Diaphragms are provided at intervals
throughout the length of the beam.
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6. Beam Brackets or Corbels. Short beam extensions from columns

used to support rafters or trusses.
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3.5 ROOF DECKS

Reinforced concrete roof slabs (roof decks) are formed and sitecast in the
same manner as concrete floor systems. Roof decks are normally
covered with a type of membrane roofing for insulation and
waterproofing.
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Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
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3.6 WALLS AND STRUCTURAL WALLS

3.6.1 TYPES OF WALLS
1. Bearing wall. A wall on which either floor or roof construction
rests.
2.Curtain wall. The enclosing wall of an iron or steel framework or
the non-bearing portion of an enclosing wall between piers.
3.Foundation wall. That portion of an enclosing wall below the
first tier of joists.
4.Retaining wall. A subsurface wall built to resist the lateral
pressure of internal loads.
5.Spandrel wall. The space between any arch and the beam over
the same; or an exterior non-bearing wall in skeleton
construction built between columns or piers and wholly
supported at each story.
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Walls
3.6.2 CURTAIN WALLS

1. Panel walls are exterior non-load bearing walls whose outer surface
may or may not form the exterior facing of the building and whose
interior surface may or may not form the interior finish. It may rest on
the building structure or may be hung from the structure.
Masonry panel walls are exterior non-load bearing walls whose outer
surface may form exterior building face or it may be used back of
panel curtain wall as back-up.
The two types of masonry panel walls are: the stone masonry panel and
the pre-cast masonry panel wall units.
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a. Stone masonry panels are natural or artificial stone slabs which are
anchored to the building structure by masonry anchors.
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b. Pre-cast masonry panel wall units are ordinary reinforced or

prestressed concrete wall units which may span one floor or several floors.
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2.
Panel curtain walls are exterior non-load bearing walls made up of

panels attached directly to the building structure with an adjustable
attachment or mounted on supports (subframe), which in turn, are
attached to the building structure by adjustable attachments. Exterior
face of panels form the face of the building; interior face may or may
not form the interior finish. The panels which protect the building from
the weather, may be one of the following types:
a. Window type panel. Transparent glass and frame incorporated in

panel curtain wall.
b. Skin type panel. Panel made up of one material.
c. Sandwich type panel. Panel made up of assembly of several materials.
1. Open Sandwich type. Sandwich panel with top and bottom edges
closed.
2. Closed Sandwich type. Sandwich panel in which all edges of
panel are closed except for weep holes and vents.
d. Wall Units. Preassembly of several panels of any type. Units may be
one or several stories high.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Panel curtain walls may be classified into the following types:

Stick type. Refers to the method of installation where the mullions and
horizontal rails (gutter section and window sill section) are installed first
before installation of the window and wall panels.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
b. Unit and Mullion type. Supports (mullions) are clearly expressed.

Vertical lines dominant. Mullions are generally 4 4 max.; height, 8
0 maximum.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
c. Grid type (or Unit type). Supports (vertical and horizontal

members) clearly expressed. Vertical and horizontal lines
equally dominant. Area between support members, 32 sq. ft.
maximum. Width of panels, 4 4 max.; height, 8 0 max.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
d. Panel type (or sheathed type). Supports not expressed. Nonlineal pattern. Joints vertical and horizontal usually without trim.
Individual panel size: max. width, 3 10; max. height, 8 0.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
e. Spandrel type (column cover and spandrel system). Supports are

not a primary element of expression in this type of wall. Horizontal
lines are dominant and the length of spandrel unlimited. Width of
interlocking panels is 4 4 maximum; height is 8 0 maximum.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
f. Sheathed type (Industrial). Supports not expressed. Non-lineal

pattern. Joints vertical. Panel size: width, approx. 4; height, 60 max.
Assembly methods of panel curtain walls may be by:
1. Individual panels.
2. Wall units. Width, 6 max.; height, one several stories.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
3.6.3 PRESSURE EQUALIZED DESIGN FOR CURTAIN WALLS.

Pressure differential between the outside atmosphere and an interior
environment can cause rainwater to migrate through even the smallest
openings in wall joints. Pressure-equalized design can significantly
reduce this cause of water leakage in wall construction by employing the
rainscreen principle.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
3.6.4 RETAINING WALLS, BREAST WALLS, AND VAULT

WALLS.
A retaining wall is a wall whose purpose is to resist the thrust of a bank of
earth or other material. It is differentiated from breast walls which is
similar to the retaining wall, in that in the retaining the earth or other
filling is deposited behind it after it is built, while the breast wall (or
face wall) is built to prevent the fall of earth which is in its
undisturbed, natural position, but from which part has been
excavated, leaving a vertical or inclined face.
Retaining walls are of three types:
a.
Gravity wall. This is a type of wall which is constructed of such

proportions that its weight alone resists the thrust of the earth. Low walls
are invariably gravity walls constructed of brick, stone masonry or
concrete.
b. Cantilever wall. The cantilever wall is constructed of reinforced concrete

and makes use of the weight of the earth in resisting the tendency to
overturn at the outer edge. The vertical wall, supported on a horizontal
base, serves as a cantilever beam in resisting the earth pressure. Walls of
intermediate height are generally of the cantilever type.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
C. Counterfort wall. It is similar to the cantilever wall with the exception

that the vertical wall is tied to the base at regular intervals with triangularshaped walls called counterforts ( a counterfort is similar to a buttress, but
where a buttress is placed on the side of the wall opposite the pressure
acting on it, a counterfort is placed on the same side of the wall ). It is
usually more economical to use the counterfort wall for heights of 20 ft. or
over.
Roof Decks
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
In large cities it is customary to utilize the space under the sidewalks for
storage or other purposes. This necessitates a wall at the curb line to hold
back the earth and the street pressures and also the weight of the
sidewalk. These are called vault walls.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
3.7 PRESTRESS CONCRETE
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
The concrete in the conventional reinforced-concrete beam is not used

economically. With respect to bending stresses, only the concrete
above the neutral surface resists compressive stresses. All the
concrete in the tension area, below the neutral axis, is disregarded in
designing because concrete is inherently weak in tension. Therefore,
only about one-third of the concrete resists compressive stresses, the
maximum stress being at the top of the beam, with the stresses
decreasing in magnitude to a zero stress at the neutral surface.
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Since in the usual reinforced-concrete beam the concrete cannot be used

efficiently, certain forces may be applied to beams that result in a
member in which all the concrete resists bending stresses. This is
known as prestressed concrete. A prestressed concrete beam is a
member so designed and constructed that all of the stresses in the
concrete resulting from bending are compressive, none is tensile. The
name is derived from the fact that the stresses are applied before the
beam is loaded.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
There are two methods of prestressed concrete, namely:

a. Pre-tensioning or bonded prestressing. In this method the
reinforcing steel is first prestressed and then the concrete is poured.
When the concrete has developed strength, the stress in the steel is
released. The steel when stretched out becomes smaller in crosssection than when unstressed, and the concrete hardens around them
while they are still small. When their artificial tension is released after
the concrete hardens, they expand, reverting to their original shape,
grip the surrounding concrete. The bond between the concrete and
steel is sufficient to create compression in the concrete.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
b. Post-tensioning or unbonded pre-stressing. In this method, tubes,

conduits, or channels are inserted in the concrete where reinforcing
steel is required. After the concrete is adequately cured, steel
reinforcement is inserted in the tubes or channels, stretched to the
proper tension, and anchored at the ends to put a squeeze on the
beam. Tensioning is done with hydraulic jacks.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
The reinforcing for pre-stressed concrete is usually wire, strand, bar or rope
made of heat-treated steel. Concrete must meet strengths usually greater
than AA-type concrete which has a strength of 3750 psi in 28 days.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
The advantages of pre-stressed concrete are:

1. It is economical of materials due to the use of higher steel and concrete
stresses.
2. It eliminates cracks because the concrete is always in compression.
3. It has remarkable elastic properties. For example, tests were made on a floor
slab only 1-5/s8 thick reinforced with not more than 1% steel. Although the
span was only 10 ft. the slab deflected 3 under a load of 1070lb. at its
center. When the load was removed it returned to its original level,
undamaged.
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
4. Beams do not have to be cast at the side in one form, but may be cast in
small sections or blocks at the factory with reinforcing wires threaded
through them. When the wires are stressed, the small units are brought
together like one large beam.
5. It develops remarkable resistance to shear stresses.
Pre-stressed concrete is used where spans and loads cannot be adequately
designed in reinforced-concrete, and for deckings, beams, girders and other
prefabricated units where greater spans and loads with thinner, stronger,
and in some cases, lighter members are required.
The designing of pre-stressed concrete for structures is highly technical and the
architect should always work with a structural engineer, even when using
prefabricated pre-stressed concrete units.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
3.8 PRE-CAST CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems 3.8
Building Protection
Systems
Precast concrete slabs, beams and structural tees are one-way spanning units
that may be supported by site cast concrete, precast concrete, or masonry
bearing walls, or by steel, sitecast concrete, or precast concrete frames.
The precast units are manufactured with normal-density or structural
lightweight concrete and prestressed for greater structural efficiency, which
results in less depth, reduced weight, and longer spans.
The units are cast and steam-cured in a plant off-site, transported to the
construction site, and set in place as rigid components with cranes. The
size and proportion of the units may be limited by the means of
transportation. Fabrication in a factory environment enables the unit to
have a consistent quality of strength, durability, and finish, and eliminates
the need for on-site formwork. The modular nature3 of the standard-sized
units may not be suitable for irregular building shapes.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
3.8.1 Types of Precast Concrete Floor Units
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems 3.8
Building Protection
Systems
1. Solid Flat Slabs

2. Hollow Core Slabs
3. Single Tees
4. Double Tees
5. Rectangular, LShaped and Inverted
Tee Beams
6. AASHTO Girders
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
3.9 BUILDING PROTECTION SYSTEMS

3.9.1 CATEGORIES OF BUILDING PROTECTION SYSTEMS
1. Waterproofing a method of making building surfaces impervious to
water.
2. Damp-proofing applying a water-impervious material or a vapor
barrier to a surface, usually slab-on-fill, to prevent the penetration of
moisture, from the ground or the exterior or to prevent the penetration
of condensate to the surface material. Example is BARRAFILM vapor
barrier, one layer at six mils (0.006) thick, with 300 mm overlapping.
3. Water repelling or water sealing applying, by brush or lowpressure spray, a clear silicon water repellent or sealant to porous
surface material such as cement plaster and bricks to prevent
weathering or the growth of algae and moss. Example is
THOMPSONS Water Seal.
4. Thermal insulation method of installing thermal barriers in
surfaces of structures to keep the heat or cold away from the interior
spaces.
Vapor Barrier or Vapor Retarder 1. A membrane covering the outer surface of an insulated cold water pipe that is used to prevent moisture
from penetrating the insulation and reaching the pipe. 2. A layer of material or laminate used to reduce appreciably the flow of water
vapor into a roofing system.
Weathering 1. Changes in color, texture, strength, chemical composition, or other properties of a natural or artificial material due to the
action of the weather. 2. The cover applied to a part of a structure to enable it to shed rainwater.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
5. Termite (anay) proofing
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Soil poisoning treating the soil surrounding the structure in touch

with the ground (footing bed and slab on fill) with a chemical. Example
is LENTREK TC Termicide Concentrate; dilution rating: 1 part
LENTREK TC to 50 parts water.
Factory-applied wood preservative factory pressure-applied
wood preservatives; such as boliden salts, WOLMAN preservative or
SOLIGNUM preservative of MATIMCO Wood (Manila Timber
Company).
Site-applied wood preservative application of a chemical liquid on
the wood surface (Solignum) to protect it against pest intrusion, such
as termites and powder post beetles (bukbok), and decay-causing
fungi, such as sap stain and rot.
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Powder Post A condition of wood which has decayed to powder, or has been eaten by worms which leave holes full of powder.
Rot Decomposition in wood by fungi and other microorganisms; reduces its strength, density and hardness.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Termite shields installing a

shield of non-corroding metal
or inorganic material, used as
protection against the
infiltration of termites in a
building; so placed as to
prevent their passage, usually
as a projecting shield on a
masonry foundation or pier (or
under a wood sill or beam
which it supports), or around
pipes which enter the building.
6. Rat proofing a method of protecting rooms against the intrusion of rats
and other small destructive animals from gnawing the wooden parts of the
house and habitating the under-ceilings and under-floors of houses and
buildings.
7. Fire proofing application of cover materials to structural steel components
or systems to provide increased fire resistance. Also called sprayed
fireproofing. Example is FLAMESHIELD FIREPROOFING, Filipino
invented, non-asbestos fiber mix on non-organic binder; 1 thk for 2-hour fire
rating, 2 thk for 3 hour fire rating and 3thk for 4-hour fire rating. Another
example is, MONOKOTE MK-6, a gypsum-based, cementitious spray applied
fireproofing product, from Grace Construction Products.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
8. Floor protection a method of protecting finish floor surfaces from

wear and tear or from chemical abrasions due to heavy use.
9. Rust proofing a method of protecting the steel and other ferrous
materials from corrosion.
10. Descalers, paint and chemical strippers a method of removing
old paint by the use of a paint remover; and stains, rust, algae or
even cement build-up on forms or equipment, by the use of a chemical
stripper or descaler.
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Paint remover A liquid which is applied to a dry paint or varnish to cause it to soften or lose adhesion so that it may be removed
easily.
Stripper A liquid designed to remove coatings by chemical and/or solvent action.
Descaler A liquid designed to remove scale that forms on the inside of hot water heaters, boilers, etc.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
3.9.2
WATERPROOFING
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
1. Application Locations:
Top of roof decks

Top of concrete terraces, balconies, ledges and canopies
Under-sheathing for wood shingle and tile roofing
Interior surfaces of water tanks
Exterior surfaces of concrete roof gutters
Inside surfaces of plantboxes
Kitchen floor
Toilets
Basement floor and walls
Elevator pits
Swimming pools and fish ponds
Machine, mechanical and pump rooms
Refrigeration and cold storage rooms
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
2. Four Types of Waterproofing
Integral type powder form waterproofing compound mixed with the

cement-aggregate mixture. For example one bag of integral
waterproofing compound, such as SAHARA or SAKURA is added to
98 kilos off Portland cement.
Membrane type a hot or cold membrane applied to the surface; for

example asphalt paper laid with hot asphalt or self sealing asphalt
paper. Examples from WR Grace Co. are BITUTHENE CP for toilet
slabs and BITUTHENE 3000 for roof decks; and ICE AND WATER
SHIELD self-sealing and self-adhering rubberized membrane for main
entrance canopies made of metal.
Fluid type a fluid applied elastomeric coating formulated to

waterproof and preserve the substrate of concrete, wood, and steel.
The wide temperature range, withstands extreme thermal movement,
settling and cracking; resists puncture and tearing; and can be applied
by roller, brush, spray or squeegee. Examples of exposed type liquid
membrane waterproofing from WR Grace are NEWFLEX and
NEWFLEX R100 for ledges.
Cementitious type powder form waterproofing compound mixed

with water and applied by brush to the surface to be waterproofed.
Examples from WR Grace are MORTASEAL and HYDRATITE for
concrete gutters, ledges
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
FOUNDATION AND SUB-STRUCTURE WATER PROOFING
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
GROUND BEAM
WATER PROOFING
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
BASE SLAB - PIPE PENETRATION WATER

PROOFING
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
THROUGH WALL PENETRATION

WATER PROOFING
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
FLAT DECK WATER PROOFING
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
UPSTAND DETAIL-SHEAR MEMBER
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
TYPICAL DRAIN DETAIL
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
TYPICAL PIPE DETAIL THROUGH ROOF SLAB

(LIQUID MEMBRANE DETAIL)
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
TYPICAL PIPE DETAIL THROUGH ROOF SLAB (SHEET MEMBRANE

DETAIL)
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
EXPANSION JOINT COVER

DECK OR WALL JUNCTION
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.9.3 THERMAL INSULATION

1. Application Locations of heat insulators:
Top or bottom of roof decks

Below roofing sheets
Above suspended ceiling
2.
Types of Thermal Insulators
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Loose Fill fibrous type and granular type

Blanket Insulation is made from fibrous materials such as mineral wool, wood fiber,
cotton fiber or animal hair and made into batt[1] or boards. Example is PARSEC
Thermo Brite II for underneath metal roofing insulation.
Block or Rigid Slab Insulation stiff and inelastic such as foamed plastic, cellular
glass, foamed concrete, etc. Example is STYROFOAM ROOFMATE SL extruded
polysterene board as manufactured by DOW Chemicals, for inaccessible roof decks.
Foamed-in Place Insulation a polyurethane product made by combining a
polyisocyanate and a polyester resin. This type of insulation can be applied either by
pouring or by spraying. The basic ingredients for both are drawn from their containers,
measured and mixed by machine.
Sprayed-on Insulation materials used are polyurethane foam asbestos fiber mixed
with inorganic binders; vermiculite aggregate with a binder such as Portland cement or
gypsum and perlite aggregate using gypsum as a binder. Machines are used for
blowing these insulations into place and as a result, the shape and irregularity of the
surface being insulated is of little consequence. Example is MBA SPRAYED-ON
POLYURETHANE INSULATION; 25 mm thick x 1.5 pcf density for accessible roof
decks.
Batt Insulation A flexible blanket- type thermal insulation, commonly used as insulation between studs or joints in frame construction;
also used as an acoustical material or a component in sound-insulating construction. Usually made from rock, slag, or glass
fibers. Sometimes has a vapor barrier on one side or is entirely enclosed in paper with a vapor barrier on one side.
BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
3
END

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BUILDING

3. HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE, PRE-STRESSED

Foundations Systems 3.1

3.1 FOUNDATION SYSTEMS (Deep and Shallow Foundation)

3.1.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

a. Block or square footings

c. Slope or pyramidal footings

2. Strip footings are the continuous spread footings of foundation walls.

The footing is so designed so that the

b. Cantilevered footings. This type

They may be inverted slab or

Mat foundations may be divided into the following general classes:

2. Beams or girders with a slab

3. Beams or girders with a slab on top

4. STEEL GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

Deep foundations are employed when the soil underlying a shallow

LOAD BEARING WALL

End bearing piles depend principally on the bearing resistance of soil

SAMPLE OF PILE CAPS

Foundations Systems 3.1

Wood-pile Foundations. When it is

In driving wooden piles with

In driving piles care should be taken to

Cast-in-place piles may be formed by any of the following methods:

3.2 FOUNDATION WALLS, BASEMENT

3.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS

3.3.1 TYPES OF RC COLUMNS

The spiral reinforcement, with min

3. Composite Columns where structural steel columns are embedded

3.3.2 DOWEL BARS

Dowel bars are short bars used to

3.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS

Minimum protective covering for slab reinforcement is 20mm ().

2. ONE WAY JOIST OR RIBBED SLABS

In determining the reinforcement of two-way slabs two strips of floor are

4. TWO WAY WAFFLE SLAB

5. TWO WAY FLAT PLATE.

6. TWO WAY FLAT SLABS.

3.4.2REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

Beams may be classified as:

Walls & Structural

When a beam is subjected to a given load, the beam is bent downwards at

In addition to the tensile and compressive stresses in a beam subjected to

Reinforcement used to resist shearing stresses is known as web

NUMBER OF BARS IN BEAMS

An allowance of 1-1/2 (38 mm) for fireproofing is made outside the

3.4.3 TYPES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

4. Cantilever Beams. The tensile

5. Hollow box girders. These are

6. Beam Brackets or Corbels. Short beam extensions from columns

3.5 ROOF DECKS

3.6 WALLS AND STRUCTURAL WALLS

3.6.2 CURTAIN WALLS

b. Pre-cast masonry panel wall units are ordinary reinforced or

Panel curtain walls are exterior non-load bearing walls made up of

a. Window type panel. Transparent glass and frame incorporated in

Panel curtain walls may be classified into the following types:

b. Unit and Mullion type. Supports (mullions) are clearly expressed.

c. Grid type (or Unit type). Supports (vertical and horizontal

e. Spandrel type (column cover and spandrel system). Supports are

f. Sheathed type (Industrial). Supports not expressed. Non-lineal

3.6.3 PRESSURE EQUALIZED DESIGN FOR CURTAIN WALLS.

3.6.4 RETAINING WALLS, BREAST WALLS, AND VAULT