Module 4

Materials

STEELS
Plain carbon Steels
Alloy steels

Plain carbon Steels

Low carbon steels
0.1 to 0.3% C
Medium carbon steels 0.3 to 0.6% C
High carbon steels 0.6 to 1.2% C
Traces of other
elements like Si
(0.3%max), Mn (1%
max), S (0.4%
max), P (0.05%
max) are
considered as
impurities
3

Low Carbon steels

%C

Properties

Uses

0.1%C

High ductility, low strength,

low hardnes

Nails, rivets

0.2%C

Tough, high ductility, low

hardness good strength

Pipes, angles
channels, beams,
rods plates etc

0.3%C

Tough, good strength and

ductility, moderate hardness

Structural materials,
low temperature
pressure vessels

Medium Carbon steels

%C

Properties

Uses

0.3-0.6%C

Tough, ductile, good strength

and hardness

Shafts, gears, engine

parts hand tools like
spanner, screw driver
etc

High Carbon steels

%C
0.61.2%C

Properties
Very tough, ductile, good
strength and hardness

Uses
Springs, hammer,
chisels, dies, knives,
hacksaw blades etc

ALLOY
STEELS
Alloying elements are added to the steel so that
the steel satisfies various requirements, such as:
Environmental: corrosion resistance
Mechanical: hardness, strength, and toughness
Thermal: strength and durability of a metal at
either subzero or extremely high temperatures
Commonly added elements are Mn, Ni, Cr,
Mo, W, V, Cu, B, Al and Si

Purpose of Adding Alloy Elements in

Steels
The addition of alloy elements in the iron-carbon
system makes the system more complex. In low
alloy steels, however, the effect of alloy elements
may be separated into two groups:
Elements that combine with carbon: Chromium,
Manganese, Molybdenum, Titanium, Tungsten,
Vanadium, etc.
Elements that dissolve in ferrite: Aluminum,
Copper, Nickel, Silicon, etc.

Alloy elements are added to steel for

some basic purposes, for example:
Aluminum: deoxides steel
Cobalt: Improves mechanical
properties at high
temperatures.
Copper: Increases corrosion resistance
and
improves machinability.
Chromium: Improves resistance to
corrosion
and wear.
Lead: aids machinability.
Manganese: Deoxidizes steel and
improves
hardenability.
Molybdenum: Improves strength,
hardenability,
and wear
resistance.

 Titanium: Improves strength,

hardenability,
and wear
resistance.
Vanadium: Improves strength,
hardenability,
and wear
resistance.
Nickel: Increases hardenability and
corrosion
resistance.
Phosphorus: Improves corrosion
resistance in
structural
grades of steel.
Silicon: improves strength
Sulphur: improves machinability

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Dislocation Movement
The presence of alloying atoms would develop
lattice stresses.
The alloying atoms would have different elastic
modulus which would create a different terrain for
moving dislocation.
The dislocations will experience difficulty in
mobility
Polymorphic
Transformation

Temperature
Alloying elements like Mo, Cr, W, Si, V, Ti will
trend to contract austenite region
Alloying elements Ni, Mn, Cu, Co etc will trend to
enlarge the austenite region
Alloying elements will change the n temperature
for - and - transformation
10

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Strengthening of ferrite
Most of the alloy elements form solid solution
with ferrite.
Though the solubility is limited, alloying
elements increase hardness and strength
Formation and stability of
carbides
Carbide formed with alloying elements are
hard, brittle and provide wear resistance to
steels.
Carbides of Cr and V are having
outstanding hardness and wear resistance.
11

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Displacement of Eutectoid
Point
A1temperature is lowered by
the austenite-formers and
raised by the ferrite-formers.

12

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Retardation of transformation
rate
The austenite transformation temperature is
shifted up or down by alloying elements.
Increasing Ni or Mn content will lower the
austenite transformation temperature thereby
postponing of austenite on slow cooling
Lowering of critical cooling
rates
TTT curves are shifted to the right due to most
of the alloying elements.
Except Co this means that the critical cooling
rate required for formation of martensite is
decreased and hence leading to better
hardenability
13

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Improvement in Corrosion
Resistance
Elements like Al forms thin oxide layers
and protect it from further corrosion.
Cr imparts corrosion resistance only when
the composition is more than 13%
Influence on Grain Growth
Grain growth is retarded in the presence of Ni
and V
These elements are usually called as grain
refiners

14

FUNCTIONS OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS
Element

Percentage Functions

<0.33

improves machinability, reduce

weldability and ductility

<0.12

improves machinability, reduce

impact strength

Si

1.5 to 2.5

Improves toughness, increase

hardenability

Mn

0.5 to 2.0

Increase hardenability, reduce the

adverse effect of S

0.001 to
0.05

Increases hardenability

Al

0.01 to
0.06

Removes oxygen from molten metal

Pb

<0.35

Improves machinability

15

FUNCTIONS OF ALLOYING
Elemen Percentag Functions
ELEMENTS
t

Ni

1.0 to 5.0

Increases toughness and impact strength,

Improves corrosion resistance of stainless
steels above 8%

Cr

0.5 to 4.0

Improves oxidation resistance. wear and

corrosion resistance, Improves high
temperature strength due to the formation
of carbides

Mo

0.1 to 0.4

Improves hardenability and wear

resistance. Improves high temperature
hardness, eliminates temper
embrittlement

2.0 to 3.0

A strong carbide former. Improves

hardenability and wear resistance.,
eliminates temper embrittlement

0.1 to 0.3

A strong carbide former and prevents grain

growthImproves hardenability, increases
wear and fatigue resistance
16

FUNCTIONS OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS
Element

Percentag
e

Function

Ti

<1.0

A strong carbide former. Improves

strength and corrosion resistance

Cu

0.15 to 0.25 Promotes precipitation hardening.

Improves strength , hardness and
corrosion resistance

Co

5 to 10

Improves high temperature hardness

and mechanical properties. Improves
corrosion and wear resistance

17

CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS

Ni - Steels
Nickel
Unlimited solubility in -iron.
Highly soluble in ferrite
Does not form carbide.
Retards transformation of austenite
Lowers critical temperature
Pearlite formed at lower temperature is finer and
tougher than the pearlite of plain carbon steel.
Ni-steels have better toughness, ductility,
fatigue resistance.

18

CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS

.
Cr- Steels

A strong carbide former

Soluble upto 13% in -iron
Unlimited solubility in ferrite
A special type with 1%C and 2-4% Cr has
excellent magnetic properties.

With more than 5% Cr, Chromium steels

have improved high temperature
properties and corrosion resistance.

19

CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS

.
Ni-Cr Steels
Ni to Cr ratio is about 5:2.
This combination results in increased
toughness, ductility, hardenability and wear
resistance.
Mo - Steels
Limited solubility in and iron.
A strong carbide former.
Used with Cr, Ni or both
Mo- steels have good hardenability, high
temperature hardness, wear resistance
20

CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS

.
High Speed Steels
(HSS)
Wear resistant due to the presence of hard
matrix carbides
Maintain high hardness at high temperature
upto 550 oC
18%W 4% Cr, 1% V and carbon 0.6%-0.8%
Used for cutting tools
W based and Mo based
HSS W + Cr, V, Co
Mo + Cr, V, Co

High temperature hardness is due to the formation

of alloy carbides

21

OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS .

Free Cutting steels
Higher machinability is the required
property.
Two types
High sulpher steels:0.33% Sulphur and 0.12%
phosphorus
Leaded steels: 0.35% lead

Rail steels

Requirement:
Strength, ductility, high impact strength,
fatigue resistance
Addition of Mn and Cr (upto 1% ) improve these
properties
22

OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS .

Spring steels
Requirements:
High elastic limit, good elongation, high
fatigue resistance
Mn and Si are used as main alloying elements in
spring steels

Tool steels

Requirements:
High hardness, wear resistance, good
toughness, resistance to shock
Used to make different type of tools like chisels,
hammers, punches, dies shears etc

23

OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS .

HSLA Steels(Micro alloyed steels) High Strength
Low Alloy
They are designed to provide better mechanical
properties than conventional carbon steels.
The HSLA steels have low carbon contents (0.50 to
0.75%C) in order to produce adequate formability and
weldability, and they have manganese contents up to
2.0 %.
Small quantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum,
copper, nitrogen, vanadium, niobium, titanium, and
zirconium are used in various combinations.
The chemical composition of a specific
HSLA steel may vary for different product
thickness to meet mechanical property
requirements.

24

OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS .

TMT Steels
Thermo mechanically treatd (TMT) steels have
superior properties like weldability strength,
ductility and toughness.
0.17 0.24% Carbon
Sulphur:0.05%
Phosphorus: 0.045%
Under thermo mechanical treatment of bars, the steel
bars are made to pass through a specially designed
water cooling system where these are kept for such a
period that outer surface of bars becomes colder while
the
remains
hot.
Thiscore
creates
a temperature
gradient in the bars. When
the bars are taken out of the cooling system, the heat
flows from the core to the outer surface causing
further tempering of steel bars thereby helping them
in attaining higher yield strength of steel.

25

OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS .

Stainless
Steels
Stainless Steels are iron-base alloys
containing Chromium.
They attain their stainless characteristics
because of the formation of an invisible and
adherent chromium-rich oxide surface film.
Some other alloying elements added to
enhance specific characteristics include nickel,
molybdenum, copper, titanium, aluminum,
silicon, niobium, and nitrogen.

26

Stainless
Steels
Corrosion resistance and mechanical properties
are commonly the principal factors in selecting a
grade of stainless steel for a given application.
Stainless steels are commonly divided into 5
groups:
Martensitic stainless steels
Ferritic stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steels
Duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels.

27

Stainless
Steels
Martensitic
stainless steels
Martensitic stainless steels are essentially alloys of
chromium (12-14%) and carbon (upto 0.15%) that
possess a martensitic crystal structure in the hardened
condition.
They are ferromagnetic, hardenable by heat
treatments, and are usually less resistant to corrosion
than some other grades of stainless steel.
Chromium content usually does not exceed 18%,
while carbon content may exceed 1.0 %. The Cr
and C contents are adjusted to ensure a
martensitic structure after hardening.
Excess carbides may be present to enhance wear
resistance or as in the case of knife blades, to
maintain cutting edges.
28

Stainless
Steels
Ferritic stainless steels
Ferritic stainless steels are Cr (16-25%) and
C (0.12 -0.2%) containing alloys with body
centered cubic (bcc) crystal structures.
The ferritic stainless steels are ferromagnetic.
They may have good ductility and formability,
but high-temperature mechanical properties
are relatively inferior to the austenitic stainless
steels.
Toughness is limited at low temperatures and
in heavy sections.
Cannot be heat treated since austenite
does not form at any temperature
29

Stainless
Steels stainless steels
Austenitic
Austenitic stainless steels have a face centered
cubic (fcc) crystal structure.
Austenitic stainless steels are effectively
nonmagnetic in the annealed condition and can be
hardened only by cold working.
Austenite is formed through the generous use of
austenitizing elements such as nickel, manganese,
and nitrogen.
They have reasonable cryogenic and high
temperature strength properties.
Cr content typically is in the range of 16 to 26%; Ni
content is commonly less than 35%.
Some variety may contain Mo (upto 2%) for
improved creep and corrosion properties.
30

Stainless
Steelsstainless steels
Duplex
The primary alloying elements are chromium
and nickel..
Duplex stainless steels are a mixture of
bcc ferrite and fcc austenite crystal
structures.
Most Duplex stainless steels are intended to
contain equal amounts of ferrite and austenite in
the annealed condition.
Duplex stainless steels generally have better
stress corrosion cracking resistance
Duplex stainless steels also generally have
greater tensile and yield strengths, but poorer
toughness than austenitic stainless steels.

31

CAST IRONS
Cast irons typically contain more than 2 wt%
of carbon (2-5%C)

32

CAST IRONS ..

In this composition range liquid state is between

1150-1300 C, which is lower than that for steels.
They are easily melted and cast
Most cast irons are brittle. Hence casting is a
convenient fabrication technique
Cast irons have higher compressive strength,
ability to absorb vibrations, better wear, abration,
corrosion and heat resistance, rigidity and
machinability
With suitable composition and heat treatment,
variety of microstructure could be developed
with varying properties

33

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRONS

They are classified based on the metallurgical

structure and appearance
Factors controlling structure &
1. Carbon content
appearance

Carbon is present either as Fe3C or as free carbon in

the form of graphite.
Alloy carbides are also formed when other alloying
elements are present
2. Cooling rate
Higher cooling rate generally help the formation of
carbides while slower cooling rates help carbon to be in
the
freetreatment
form
3.
Heat
Heat treatment helps in either
(a) the formation of carbide or
(b) decomposition of cementite into free carbon
and
(c) causes changes in the shape, size and
distribution of
graphite particles

34

CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRONS .

Depending upon the nature, shape, size and distribution

of carbon, cast irons are classified as
1. Grey cast iron
2. White cast iron
3. Ductile cast iron

35

Grey cast iron

Carbon exist in free form as graphite flakes embeded
in a matrix of -ferrite or pearlite
Due to the presence of graphite flakes, a fracture
surface appears grey in colour
Have low strength and brittle in tension. But have better
strength and ductility in compression
Uses: Automobile parts like cylinder block, cylinder head,
break drum lining, underground piping, motor case,
machine tool beds etc

36

White cast iron

White cast irons are hard and brittle; they cannot

easily be machined.
Upon rapid cooling most of the carbon exist as
cementite
The fracture surface has a white appearance
Have good wear resistance, compressive strength
Used for components requiring high abrasion
resistance, pump liner, rollers for rolling mill etc.

37

Ductile cast iron

Addition of Mg and Cerium in small quantities to grey

iron leads to a different microstructure
Carbon exist as graphite in the form of nodules or
spheroids instead of flakes
This variant of cast iron is ductile. It is also known as
spherodised graphite iron (SG iron) or nodular cast iron.
Mechanical properties are comparable with steel
Have superior wear resistance.
Typical applications
-- automobile parts
-- farm machinery
-- earth moving equipments
-- pumps and compressors
-- gears, valves, IC engine parts
38

Malleable iron

Produced from white cast iron using heat treatment

process known as melleabilising
White cast iron is heated above 700 C and held for a
longer period and then cooled.
During this process cementite in white iron decomposes
in the form of irregular shaped globules. The matrix is
either pearlite or ferrite depending upon the cooling rate.
These castings are widely used in automobile, electrical
and railway industries due to good combination of
strength, ductility, wear resistance and machinability
Typical uses are brackets, hubs, break drums, cam shafts,
crank shafts, housing, earth moving parts etc .

39

Wrought iron

It is an iron alloy with very low carbon content

and impregnated with tiny fibrous inclusions of
iron silicate known as slag
The presence of slag changes the chemical
properties of iron enough to create a new and
beneficial metal.
Have good strength, resistance to corrosion and
malleability
Wrought iron lacks the carbon content necessary
for hardening through heat treatment

40

Copper & Copper Alloys

Copper
Most important properties
Good electrical conductivity
Good corrosion resistance
Good thermal conductivity
Easily machinable
Can be welded, brazed, soldered

Lacks sufficient strength for structural

applications

41

Electrical
conductivity

Uses of
Copper

Wires, switches and other items

which carry electric current

Thermal conductivity

Radiators, water heaters, refrigerators,

heat exchangers, condensers etc

Corrosion resistance

Cu and its alloys find use in corrosive

environments

42

ALLOYS OF
COPPER

Brasses (Cu-Zn)

Bronzes (Cu-Sn)
Cupronickels (Cu-Ni)
Nickel-silvers (Cu-ZnNi)

43

Brasses (Cu-Zn
alloy)

Small amounts of Pb, Sn, or Al is added to impart specific

properties
44

Important properties of
brasses are:
Good strength, ductility, formability and
machinability
-- Good electrical and thermal conductivity
-- Good wear and corrosion resistance
-- Non magnetic
-- Good aesthetic property
--

45

-brass
Brass containing only -phase is called -brass
Solubility of Zn (upto 38% at 500C)
FCC structure
Highly ductile at room temperature
Have good corrosion resistance

46

Variants of -brass
Yellow -brass (Contains 20-36%
Zn)Colour is yellow
Have good corrosion resistance
Cartridge brass (70% Cu-30% Zn)
Used for production of cartridge and shell case for
rifles
Good combination of strength and ductility
Admiralty brass (71% Cu-28%Zn1%Sn(Tin))
More suitable for marine applications
Also used for condensers, evaporaters and heat
exchangers
Aluminum brass (76% Cu-22% Zn-2%
Al)
Better than admiralty brass
Used for marine applications

47

Variants of -brass
Aluminum brass (76% CU-22% Zn-2% Al)
Better than admiralty brass
Used for marine applications

Red -brass (Zn content 5-20%only)

Due to high Cu content, the alloy have a red colour
Good corrosion resistance and workability
Used for condenser, heat exchanger, plumbing pipes and
radiators
Variants
Gliding Metal (95% Cu-5% Zn)
Closely matches gold in colour
Used for making coins, medals, jewelry etc
Leaded red brass (Cu and 5% Pb-5% Sn-5% Zn)
Used for pressure valve, pipe fittings, pump
castings
Have fairly good strength and machinability
48

Variants of -brass
Duplex brasses ( + brasses)
At Zn level more than 38%, a new solid solution resulting
in a mixture of and is formed
At lower temperature phase changes to an ordered phase making the alloy harder and more brittle.
These alloys have good strength, but poor ductility and are
more suitable for hot working

49

Variants of -brass
Variants of Duplex brasses
1. Muntz Metal (60% CU-40% Zn)
Used for springs , chains etc
Also used as a brazing alloy for steel
It is also called yellow metal
2. Naval brass (60% Cu-39% Zn-1% Sn)
Addition of Sn improves corrosion resistance making
it suitable for sea water applications
Used for propeller shafts, impeller for pumps, valve
etc
3. Forging brass (60% Cu-38% Zn-2% Pb)
Best hot working properties
Used for hot forging for plumbing parts

50

BRONZE
S of Cu with other elements other than
Bronzes represent alloys
Zn
Other alloying elements like Sn, Al, Si Be are used to produce
different
bronzes
Bronzes Vs
Brasses
Bronzes have
1. lower coefficient of friction
2. higher strength and toughness
3. higher corrosion resistance
4. higher cost
Bronzes Vs Steel
Bronzes have
1. better corrosion resistance
2. better heat and electric conductivity

Used for bearings, springs, bells, statues and industrial

castings
51

Variants of bronzes
1. Tin bronze (Phospher bronze) 88-98%Cu,1-11%Sn, 0.10.5%P Sn improves wear and corrosion resistance
Pb function as deoxidizer during melting. Also
contribute to hardness and wear resistance .
Uses: springs, bellows, bushes, taps, clutch disc, electrical
contacts etc.

2. Gun metal

(88% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn)

Zn replaces P in Tin bronze

Used in marine components due to better corrosion
resistance

52

Variants of bronzes
3. Aluminum bronze (Alloy of Cu and Al(4-11%)
Other elements like Fe, Ni, Mn, Si may be added to obtain
specific desired properties
Good strength and corrosion resistance
Of all cu alloys, it is having finest colour and often called
as imitation gold
Not suitable for casting

53

Variants of bronzes
4. Silicon bronze: Alloy: Cu Si (1-4%)
Small amounts of Mn, Zn, and Fe are alloyed
Suitable for cold and hot working
Typical uses: rivets, nuts and bolts, wood screw etc

Cu-Si phase diagram

54

Variants of bronzes
Beryllium bronze: Alloy Cu Be(0.6 to 3%)
High strength due to precipitation hardening
Also called beryllium copper
Used for springs due to high elasticity and fatigue
resistance

55

Aluminum and its

alloys

Characteristics of Aluminum:

Low density, low strength

Low melting point
High electrical and thermal conductivity
High ductility and malleability
Good oxidation and corrosion resistance
Good machinability, formability, workability and
castability
Non magnetic

Used for lightly loaded structures, electrical

cables etc

56

Strengthening methods of Al
Cold work (Strain hardening)
Solid solution hardening
Age hardening
Fiber reinforcement
This class of alloys contain small amounts of
other alloying elements like Si, Fe, Mg, Cr and
Zn
Al-alloy groups
Duralumin (94Al-4Cu-0.5Mg-0.5Mn-0.5Si-0.5Fe)
Have high strength and high electrical conductivity
Used for sheets, tubes, forgings, rivets etc.
Also used in aircraft industry, surgerical equipments

57

Al-alloy groups.
Y- alloy (92.5%Al-4%Cu-2%Ni-1.5%Mg)
Can be used upto 200C due to excellent strength
and hardness
Suitable for cold working and casting
Used as cylinder heads and crank case for engines
Magnelium (Al, Mg,Cu alloy)
Other small amounts of elements present are Ni,
Sn, Fe, Mn and Si
Have good strength and machinability, but is
brittle
Uses include vehicle door handles, luggage
racks, ornamental fixtures
Used in aircraft and automobile industries
Silumin alloys (88%Al-12%Si)
Have good castability, corroson resistance high
ductlity and low density
58

Magnesium and its

Magnesiumalloys
Lighter and less ductile than Aluminum
Poor resistance to fatigue, creep and wear.
Addition of:
Al -> increases strength, hardness and castability
Mn -> improves corrosion resistance
Zr -> have grain refining effect (increases strength)
Typical applications are in the area of
aerospace
High speed machinery
Transportation and material handling equipments
Mg-Al-Zn alloys are suitable for casting, extrusion and
forging operations

59

Nickel and its

alloys

Nickel
A metal having good corrosion resistance
Can be strengthened by strain hardening, age
hardening or by precipitation hardening
Most common alloying elements are Cu, Fe, Cr, Mo,
Mn and Al

Cu-Ni alloys
Monel:

Ni and Cu are in the ratio 2:1

High corrosion resistance, good toughness and fatigue
strength
Better mechanical properties than brasses and bronzes
When S is added to Monel (R-monel), machinability is
improved
When 3% Al added (K-monel) age hardening possible
H-monel (3% Si added), S-monel (4% Si added) strength and
corrosion resistance increased
60

Nickel and its alloys .

Cupro-nickel (Cu-30%Ni alloy)
Suitable for service at elevated temperature
Widely used for naval application and condenser tubes

Constantan (Cu-40%Ni-1.5%Mn)
Have high electrical resistivity not affected by change in
temperature
Used for heating devises, thermocouples, reheostats

Nickel-silvers/German silvers (Ni-Cu-Zn alloy)

Have good strength ductility and low thermal
conductivity
Used as base metal for plumbing hardware and table
ware which are silver plated

61

Titanium and its

alloys
Titanium
Pure Ti is strong, ductile and light material
Density is 60% of steel
Below 800 C, HCP -Ti, Above 800 C BCC -Ti
Have high strength and corrosion resistance at
high temperature
Suitable for cold and hot working and has good
weldability
Inferior machinability compared to that of steel

Ti and its alloys are used as a structural material

62

Alloys of Titanium
Important alloying elements for Ti are Al, Cr,
Mn, V, Fe, Mo and Sn for increasing the
strength.
Among these Fe, Cr and Al provide highest
strength
Ti alloys exhibit better creep and fatigue
strength and good corrosion resistance
Respond to heat treatment by precipitation
hardening
Have highest specific strength (ratio of
strength to weight)

63

Alloys of Titanium
Uses of Ti- alloys
Aircraft structural and turbine material
due to high
strength to weight ratio and
high temperature corrosion resistance
In chemical processing plants as vessels,
valves and tanks due to higher corrosion
resistance
Ti-6Al-4V is the most widely used Ti
alloy

64

Tin and Lead based

alloys
Babbitt Metal (White metal)
Sn or Pb based
Used to provide best bearing surface.
Typical composition of babbitt metal are
90%Sn,10%Cu
89%Sn, 7% antimony, 4%Cu
80%Pb, 15% antimony, 5%Sn

65

CERAMIC
S

Ceramics
A compound formed by the combination of
metallic and non metallic elements
Metal oxides, carbides, nitrides silicates are
considered as ceramics
Refractory, glasses, abrasives, clays, enamels
cement are examples of ceramic materials
Properties
high hardness
brittleness
high melting point
chemical inertness
Good electrical insulators
Most of these properties are due to the presence of strong ionic and
covalent bonds

66

Ceramics..

Glasses
Solid obtained by supercooling liquid without
crystallization
It has apparent properties of a solid like hardness,
brittleness and chemical inertness
Basic ingredient is silica sand. Compounds like CaCO 3
(lime stone), Na2CO3 (soda ash) etc are added to make
different types of glasses
Used in construction and engineering applications
Insulation purpose
Safety glasses in automobile (wind screen)

67

Ceramics..
Refractories

Have good strength heat resistance and resistance

to thermal shock
Can withstand high temperature
Zirconia (ZrO2), Magnesia (MgO), alumina (Al2O3)
quartz (SiO2), fireclay are some refractories
Used as furnace linings or as support to heating
elements
Cements

Portland cement, plaster of paris, lime are some of

materials of this category.
When these materials are mixed with water, they
form a paste and harden on drying

68

Ceramics..
Clay

Most widely used ceramic material

Used for making bricks for structural
application, porcelain, pottery, tableware,
sanitary ware etc
Abrasives
This type of ceramic is used for cutting and grinding
application
They possess high hardness, wear resistance and
high toughness
Diamond, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide,
aluminum oxide, silica sand are examples

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Ceramics..
PZT and PLZT
PZT (lead zirconate titanate) is a chemical compound
of lead, zirconium and titanate combined under high
temperature
They show good piezoelectric, pyroelectric and
ferroelectric effect
Used for manufacturing of ultrasound transducers,
ceramic capacitors, sensors and actuators.
Piezoelectric effect -> sensor and actuator applications
Pyroelectric effect -> heat sensor applications
Ferroelectric
-> detection of electric field
For commercial use it is doped with different types of dopents
to modify the properties.
When PZT is modified by doping with lanthanum, it is
called PLZT (lead lanthanum zirconate titanate)

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COMPOSIT
ES

Material with unusual combination of

increased strength, stiffness wear and impact
resistance and lower densities
Composites are multi phase materials
Matrix phase is present in larger amounts
Reinforcing phase is dispersed in matrix phase
Properties of the constituent phases determine the
property of the composites
Factors which determine the properties include
THEIR RELATIVE AMOUNTS
GEOMETRY OF THE DISPERSED PHASE

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COMPOSITES
..
Particle reinforced composites
In this category, the matrix is reinforced by hard
particles
Matrix and dispersed particles share the load
For effectiveness the particle should be small and
evenly distributed in the matrix

Concrete:

Matrix is cement and reinforced by sand

and gravel
Cermets: WC or TiC particles embedded in matrix of
metal like cobalt or nickel
Rubber reinforced by particles of carbon black is anothor
example of composite
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COMPOSITES..

Fibre - reinforced composites

The dispersed phase is fibre (polycrystalline or
amorphous).
Matrix is usually metal, ceramic or polymer material.
This type of composite has unique combination of
high strength, high stiffness and fracture toughness.
GFRP composites
Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) is popularly
fibre glass
Have high strength, stiffness and rigidity.
Used for automobile bodies, storage containers,
marine applications

known as
flooring and

CFRP Composites
Carbon fibre (diameter 4-10 microns) reinforced composite
Used for aerospace applications, in sports equipments, pressure
vessels and structural components.

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COMPOSITES..

Metal Matrix Composites

A ductile metal is used as matrix. (Alloys of Al, Cu, Ti, and
Mg)

Reinforcement (Al-oxide, carbon fibre etc) may improve

strength, abrasion resistance, creep resistance, thermal
conductivity etc.
Metal matrix composites are used in automobile and
aerospace industries.

Ceramic Matrix Composites

Ceramic particles or fibers are embedded in another

ceramic matrix
Fracture toughness of these composites are higher than
the matrix ceramic
Silicon carbide reinforced in alumina are used for cutting
tool inserts for machining hard metal alloys

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COMPOSITES..
Carbon-carbon composites

Carbon fibers reinforced in a carbon matrix

Have high tensile strength upto 2000 C
Also have high creep resistance and fracture
toughness.
Used in aircraft and high performance automobiles
Laminated composites

The properties are dependent on the constituent

material as well as their geometrical shapes
Laminated composites are composed of thin layers
stacked and cemented together
Plywood is a simple example.
Carbon-epoxy laminated composites are used for
aerospace applications

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SMART
MATERIALS
Smart materials have inherent capacity
to sense and react according changes in
environment or external stimuli such as
stress, temperature, humidity, pH, electric
and magnetic fields etc.
Smart materials should consist of a
sensor (that detects the input signal) and
an actuator (that performs a responsive
function)

76

Advantages
No moving parts
High reliability
Low power requirement
APPLICATION OF SMART MATERIALS
1. Embeded sensors
2. Artificial muscles
3. Liquid crystal displays

77

Smart Materials
Piezoelectric materials
Materials which produce voltage when stressed or vice versa
Expand or contract when voltage is applied.
Applications are in ink jet printers, kitchen lighter, stereo
speakers, computer keyboards, microphones etc

Shape memory alloys (SMA)

Large deformation can be induced or recovered through
temperature changes or stress changes
The alloy remembers its original shape: returns to pre
deformed shape by heating.
Currently SMA are maily applied in medical sciences,
aerospace, electrical and mechanical applications

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Smart Materials

Magnetostrictive materials
Exhibit changes in shape under influence of magnetic field
an exhibit change in magnetisatin under mechanical
stress.
Some applications are high power sonar transducers,
motors and hydraulic actuators

Magnetic shape memory alloys

Ferromagnetic alloys
Materials exhibiting large changes in shape and size in
response to significant change in magnetic field

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BIO MATERIALS
Materials used in medical devises intended
to interact with biological systems.
Typical applications include heart valve, hip
joints, dental implants, intraocular lenses etc
Common bio materials are
Ti and its alloys
Low carbon stainless steels
Cobalt-chromium based super alloys
Ceramic materials like alumina, titania
Polymers like thermoplastics, hydrogels

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OPTICAL FIBERS
Fiber optic cable consists of a core, cladding and
coating
Core transmits signal,
cladding constrains the light signal to the core
and coating protects core and cladding
Fibre optic cable works on the principle of total internal
reflection
This is achieved by varying the refractive index of core
and cladding
The fibers should be free from defects, extremely
strong and flexible,
High purity silica based glasses are used for fiber
optic material having diameter 5-100 micrometers

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SUPERALLOY
S

High performance alloys exhibiting

High strength and creep resistance at high temperatures
Good fatigue life, phase stability oxidation and
corrosion
resistant
Classification

Ni based (Hastelloy, Nichrome, Kanthal, Udimet,

inconel)
Co based (Stellite, Haynes, Vitallium)
Fe based (Incoloy)
Typical application are in aerospace, gas turbine
blades engine valves in automotive applications

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NANO MATERIALS
Nanomaterials are materials possessing grain size of the
order of a few nanometer (1nm=10-9m).
At nanoscale level, properties of materials can be very
different for two reasons:
(1) they have large grain boundary surface area which
can make the material chemically more active and
affect their strength and electrical properties.
(2)quantum effects can begin to dominate the
behaviour of matter affecting optical, electrical and
magnetic behaviour.
Nanomaterials fall into two categories
fullerness
inorganic nanoparticles
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NANO MATERIALS ..

Graphene
A single atomic layer of carbon
It is a transparent and flexible conductor
Stretchable and 100 times stronger than steel
Electrical conductivity better than copper and
thermal conductivity better than silver
Used in applications like touch screens, light panels,
solar cells, flexible electronic and gas sensors

Fullerene
A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of
carbon in the form of hollow sphere, ellipsoid or tube
Spherical fullerene -> bukyballs
Cylindrical fullerene ->nanotubes/buckytubes
Fullerenes are conceptually graphene sheets rolled
into tubes or spheres.
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NANO MATERIALS ..

Carbon nanotube (CNT)

These cylindrical carbon molecules have novel
properties
making them potentially useful in
electronics, optics and other fields of material science.
They show extraordinary strength, unique electrical
and
thermal properties
Application include semiconducting devices, chemical
sensors , electromechanical sensors etc

85