THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ physical interpretation: what are we doing today? ]

In a flow, the boundary layer represents a (relatively) thin layer of fluid

that is nearest the solid boundary

The behaviour of the boundary layer is very different from that of the fluid
above it

The boundary layer concept, first discovered by Prandtl, is very powerful

as it allows us to divide large Reynolds number flows into viscous and
inviscid portions

Who Cares!?
our knowledge of boundary layers has been the driving force behind radical
improvements in aircraft performance, automobile aerodynamics, naval
hydrodynamics, geophysical modeling, and general bluff body flows to name a
few !!

87-351 Fluid Mechanics

THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ physical
interpretation ]

The thickness of a boundary layer can be influenced by the fluid viscosity,

surface smoothness, and the rate at which the flow travels over that
surface
flat plate

bluff body aerofoil

pipe flow

We see in the clips how there exists a real division in how the flow
behaves within the boundary layer and beyond it

If the Reynolds number is large enough, we can treat the flow as divided
into viscous in the boundary layer and inviscid beyond it

87-351 Fluid Mechanics

THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ physical
interpretation ]

Much can be learned of the boundary layer concept through examination

of flow over a flat plate

It is important to note in particular, how the Reynolds number is

formulated, the changes in velocity gradient, and the location of regime
transitions
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ physical
interpretation ]

Here the Reynolds number is expressed as Re=Ux/ as the closest thing

to a characteristic length is the distance, x, from the plate leading edge

Inspection of the figure reveals that the boundary layer starts as thin
laminar layer, then over distance becomes unstable, goes through a
transitional stage and then goes turbulent
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ physical
interpretation ]

Another characteristic distinction within the B/L is its non-zero vorticity

Observe the behaviour of a fluid particle in the flow (one within) and one
above the boundary layer

The fluid particles outside the B/L do not rotate as they flow along
(irrotational, or w/o vorticity)

Inside the B/L, particles rotate and distort under the heavy velocity
gradients present there

87-351 Fluid Mechanics

THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ physical
interpretation ]

Mixing in a laminar B/L is really limited to the molecular level

Once the fluid particles reach the turbulent zone mixing ensues that
affects parcels of fluid of various scales this is characteristic of
turbulent flow

87-351 Fluid Mechanics

THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: ]

Knowing the B/L thickness is essential in defining its region of influence in a flow

One method for delineating the B/L thickness is to consider the height
above the plate at which the velocity of the boundary layer flow, u, is
equivalent to some fraction of the free stream velocity. This is typically
the location where u=0.99U

This is to say that the thickness of the boundary layer (normal to the
plate) can be estimated to be the vertical location where the boundary
layer flow velocity is 99% that of the free stream flow
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: the displacement thickness ]

If we consider a uniform velocity profile (left) and the boundary layer velocity
profile (right), we can attempt to adjust the uniform profile until its flow rate
matches that of the boundary layer profile

The height of this vertical displacement we refer to as the boundary layer

displacement thickness, *

87-351 Fluid Mechanics

THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: the displacement thickness ]

we can express this as

here, b is the plate width

- (1)
so we write

- (2)

87-351 Fluid Mechanics

THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: the displacement thickness ]

- (2)

The displacement thickness represents the amount of thickness a body

must increase by, such that the fictitious uniform inviscid flow, has the
same mass flowrate as the actual viscous flow

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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: the momentum thickness ]

Now, let us imagine that we are considering the flow of momentum over
the plate, the velocity deficit in the non-uniform profile will also produce a
deficit in momentum flow

The plate can be displaced by a suitable height to allow an inviscid flow

the same momentum throughput as the viscous flow, i.e.,
- (3)

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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: the momentum thickness ]

which we rearrange for

- (4)
or

- (5)

The momentum thickness is a convenient formulation used when

considering the drag on an object

87-351 Fluid Mechanics

THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: example 1 ]

GIVEN:

boundary layer
displacement thickness for
the given flow:
* = 0.0070 x0.5
assume incompressible
flow (reasonable in this
velocity range)

REQD:

Acquire an expression for the velocity, U, as a function of x for the

flow within the duct but outside the boundary layer

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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: example 1
(contd) ]

SOLU:

boundary layer
displacement thickness for
the given flow:
* = 0.0070 x0.5

1. Based on mass conservation we know we can write that the flow rate at
section (1) must be very close to that in section (2)
- (E1)

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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: example 1
(contd) ]

SOLU:

boundary layer
displacement thickness for
the given flow:
* = 0.0070 x0.5

2. And, through our definition of displacement thickness, the flowrate at (2)

must be the same as that of a uniform flow with a velocity U, through a duct
whose walls have been moved inward by *
- (E2)

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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ boundary layer thickness: example 1
(contd) ]

SOLU:

boundary layer
displacement thickness for
the given flow:
* = 0.0070 x0.5

3. Now we sub our expression for * into (E2)

- (E2)
and rearrange to get

- (ans)

we observe what
happens to U as we
progress further down the
duct what is the reason
for this?
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag ]

One of the powerful aspects of B/L theory is its simple facilitation of drag
force computation

The momentum integral equation method discussed here provides a

simpler alternative to assessing the drag through solving the governing
differential equations

We consider a CV fixed around a uniform flow over a flat plate

87-351 Fluid Mechanics

THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag ]

We make some simple assumptions about the CV: that the pressure
throughout is constant, that the incoming velocity profile is uniform, and
that the exiting profile varies from zero at the CV bottom to free stream
speed at the top of the CV

The fluid adjacent to the plate makes up the bottom bounding surface in
the CV, and the top control surface follows a streamline that need only
coincide with the B/L at section (2)
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag ]

We now apply the x-component of the momentum equation to the steady

flow through the CV

- (6)

87-351 Fluid Mechanics

THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag ]

For a plate of width b we can write

- (7)

D is the drag that the plate exerts on the fluid, we also note the there is no
net force due to the uniform pressures on the CV, further there is no flow
through the top (streamline) or bottom (plate) boundaries, only through (1)
and (2)
- (8)

or

- (9)
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag ]

We do not know the height, h straight out, but we can make use of mass
conservation here
- (10)

Flow through 1 equals flow through 2

which we can re-write as

- (11)

Now we combine expressions (9) and (11), and we yield

- (12)
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag ]

- (12)

(12) gives us the drag in terms of the momentum flux deficit across the
CV outlet

Examination of (12) confirms some relationships

for an inviscid flow, the drag over the plate would be zero (U would be equal to u)
we also see how drag on a flat plate is a balance between shear drag and a
decrease in the momentum of the fluid (= an increase in the momentum thickness),
the thickening of the boundary layer is required to overcome the viscous shear
stress on the plate

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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag ]

If we combine (12) with (5) we can write (13)

- (12)

- (5)

- (13)

(13) was first expressed by Von Karman (1921)

The shear stress distribution can be had by differentiating both sides of

(13) wrt x
- (14)
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag ]

Recalling (7), we can now express

as (15)

- (7)

- (15)

Now we combine (15) and (14) to arrive at (16)

- (14)

- (16)
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag ]

Here (16) empowers us to make fairly useful boundary layer computations

like drag and shear stress, with relatively crude assumptions

- (16)

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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag: example 1 ]

GIVEN:

flow of a laminar,
incompressible fluid past a
flat plate at y=0
the boundary layer is
approximated as

where

REQD:

Determine the shear stress for this profile and compare with the
Blasius solution

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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag: example 1 (contd) ]

SOLU:

1. We recall our recently derived expression for shear stress

- (E1)
2. We recall for laminar flow, shear stress can be expressed as
- (E2)
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag: example 1 (contd) ]

SOLU:

or, for this profile

- (E3)
3. And we know our expression for momentum thickness
- (E4)
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag: example 1 (contd) ]

SOLU:

where this becomes

- (E5)
4. Now we combine (E1), (E3) and (E5), and obtain the differential equation
for
- (E6)
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag: example 1 (contd) ]

SOLU:

separating variables we have

- (E7)
5. We can integrate (E7) from x=0 (where =0 to some arbitrary location, x,
where the thickness = ), we get
- (E8)
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THE BOUNDARY LAYER: AN INTRODUCTION

[ momentum integral equation and drag: example 1 (contd) ]

SOLU:

which we can rearrange for

- (E9)
we now compare with the much
more labour intensive result for
Blasius solution

- (E10)
this compares fairly well
considering the effort saved in
achieving the result

6. Finally, we combine (E1), (E5), and (E9) to express the shear stress
**this result is within about 13% of Blasius result
- (ans)
87-351 Fluid Mechanics