Number Theory Algorithms

Zeph Grunschlag

Copyright Zeph Grunschlag

, 2001-2002.

Agenda
Euclidean Algorithm for GCD
Number Systems

Decimal numbers (base-10)

Binary numbers (base-2)
Ones complement
Twos complement

General base-b number systems

Arithmetic Algorithms

Addition
Multiplication
Subtraction 1s and 2s complement
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Euclidean Algorithm
m , ngcd(m,n)

Euclidean
Algorithm

integer euclid(pos. integer m, pos. integer n)

x = m, y = n
while(y > 0)
r = x mod y
x=y
y=r
return x

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Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(33,77):
Step

r = x mod y

33

77

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Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(33,77):
Step

r = x mod y

33

77

33 mod 77
= 33

77

33

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Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(33,77):
Step

r = x mod y

33

77

77

33

33

11

1
2

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33 mod 77
= 33
77 mod 33
= 11

Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(33,77):
Step

r = x mod y

33

77

77

33

33

11

11

1
2
3

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33 mod 77
= 33
77 mod 33
= 11
33 mod 11
=0

Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(244,117):
Step

r = x mod y

244

117

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Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(244,117):
Step
0

r = x mod y

x
244

y
117

244 mod 117 =

10

117

10

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Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(244,117):
Step
0

r = x mod y

244 mod 117 =

10
117 mod 10 = 7

1
2

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x
244

y
117

117

10

10

10

Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(244,117):
Step
0

r = x mod y

244 mod 117 =

10
117 mod 10 = 7
10 mod 7 = 3

1
2
3

L11

x
244

y
117

117

10

10
7

7
3

11

Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(244,117):
Step
0

r = x mod y

244 mod 117 =

10
117 mod 10 = 7
10 mod 7 = 3
7 mod 3 = 1

1
2
3
4
L11

x
244

y
117

117

10

10
7
3

7
3
1
12

Euclidean Algorithm.
Example
gcd(244,117):

Step
0

r = x mod y

x
244

y
117

244 mod 117 =

1
117
10
10
2
117 mod 10 = 7
10
7
3
10 mod 7 = 3
7
3
4
7 mod 3 = 1
3
1
5
3 mod 1=0
1
0
By definition 244 and 117 are rel. prime.
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13

Euclidean Algorithm
Correctness
The reason that Euclidean algorithm
works is gcd(x,y ) is not changed
from line to line. If x, y denote the
next values of x , y then:
gcd(x,y) = gcd(y, x mod y)
= gcd(y, x + qy)
(the useful fact)
= gcd(y, x )
(subtract y -multiple)
= gcd(x,y)
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14

Euclidean Algorithm
Running Time
EX: Compute the asymptotic
running time of the Euclidean
algorithm in terms of the number
of mod operations:

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15

Euclidean Algorithm
Running Time
Assuming mod operation is O (1):
integer euclid(m,
n)
x = m, y = n
while( y > 0)
r = x mod y
x=y
y=r
return x

O (1) +
? ( O (1) +
O (1)
+ O (1)
+ O (1) )
+ O (1)
= ? O(1)

Where ? is the number of while-loop iterations

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16

Euclidean Algorithm
Running Time
Facts: (x = next value of x, etc. )
1. x can only be less than y at very
beginning of algorithm
once x > y, x = y > y = x mod y
2. When x > y, two iterations of while loop
guarantee that new x is < original x
because x = y = x mod y. Two cases:
I.
II.

y > x x mod y = x y < x

y x x mod y < y x

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17

Euclidean Algorithm
Running Time
(1&2) After first iteration, size of x
decreases by factor > 2 every
two iterations.
I.e. after 2m+1 iterations,
x < original_x / 2m
Q: When in terms of m does this
process terminate?
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18

Euclidean Algorithm
Running Time
After 2m+1 steps, x < original_x / 2m
A: While-loop exits when y is 0, which is
right before would have gotten x =
0. Exiting while-loop happens when
2m > original_x, so definitely by:
m = log2 ( original_x )
Therefore running time of algorithm is:
O(2m+1) = O(m) = O (log2 (max(a,b)) )
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19

Euclidean Algorithm
Running Time
Measuring input size in terms of n = number
of digits of max(a,b):
n = (log10 (max(a,b)) ) = (log2 (max(a,b)) )
Therefore running time of algorithm is:
O(log2 (max(a,b)) ) = O(n)
(assumed naively that mod is an O(1)
operation, so estimate only holds for
fixed-size integers such as ints and
longs)
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20

Number Systems
Q: What does the string of symbols
2134
really mean as a number and
why?

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21

Number Systems
A: 2 thousands 1 hundreds 3 tens
and 4
= 2 103 + 1 102 + 3 101 + 4
100
But on the planet Ogg, the
intelligent life forms have only one
arm with 5 fingers.

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22

Number Systems
So on Ogg, numbers are counted
base 5. I.e. on Ogg 2134 means:
2 53 + 1 52 + 3 5 1 + 4 50
To distinguish between these
systems, subscripts are used:
(2134)10 for Earth
(2134)5 for Ogg
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23

Number Systems
DEF: A base b number is a string of
symbols
u = ak ak-1 ak-2 a2 a1 a0
With the ai in {0,1,2,3,,b-2,b-1}.
The string u represents the number
(u )b = ak bk + ak-1 bk-1 + . . . + a1 b + a0
NOTE: When b > 10, run out of
decimal number symbols so after 7,
8, 9 use capital letters, starting from
A, B, C,
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24

Number Systems
EG: base-2 (binary) 101, 00010
base-8 (octal ) 74, 0472
base-16 (hexadecimal ) 12F,
ABCD
Q: Compute the base 10 version of
these.

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25

Number Systems
A: base-2 (binary) 101, 00010
(101)2 = 1 22 + 0 21 + 1 20 = 5
(00010)2 = 0(24+23+22+20) + 121 = 2
base-8 (octal ) 74, 0472
(74)8 = 7 81 + 4 80 = 60
(0472)8 = 4 82 + 7 81 + 2 80 = 314
base-16 (hexadecimal ) 12F, ABCD
(12F)16 = 1162+2161+15160 = 303
(ABCD)16=10163+11162+12161+13160
= 43981
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26

Number Systems
Binary most natural system for bitstrings and hexadecimal
compactifies byte-strings (1 byte = 2
hexadecimals)
EG in HTML:
<font color="ff00ff"> Nice Color
</font>
Q: What color will this become?
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27

Number Systems
A: "f00f" represents the rgb value:
The first byte is for redness, the second
byte is for green-ness, and the last for
blue-ness. The HTML above specifies
that 1516 + 15 = 255 redness and
blueness values, but 016 + 0 = 0
green-ness. Red and blue give purple,
and 255 is the top brightness so this is
bright purple.
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28

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
Convert arbitrary decimal numbers
into various bases, (calculatorfunctions typically limited to base-2,
8, 16 and 10).
EG: Back at Ogg. Convert 646 to
base-5. Try to do all operations base5.

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29

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
Back at Ogg. Convert 646 to base-5. Try
to do all operations as an Oggian (base5):
(646)10 = (6)10(10)102 + (4)10(10)10+ (6)10
Each quantity easy to convert into base-5:
(6)10 =(11)5 since 6 = 5 + 1
(4)10 =(4)5 since 4 < 5
(10)10 =(20)5
since 10 = 25 + 0
So convert whole expression and do
Oggian arithmetic:
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30

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
Back at Ogg. Convert 646 to base-5.
Try to do all operations as an Oggian
(base-5):
(646)10 = (11)5(20)52 + (4)5(20)5+ (11)5
=

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31

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
Back at Ogg. Convert 646 to base-5.
Try to do all operations as an Oggian
(base-5):
(646)10 = (11)5(20)52 + (4)5(20)5+ (11)5
= (11)5(400)5 + (130)5+ (11)5
=

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32

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
Back at Ogg. Convert 646 to base-5.
Try to do all operations as an Oggian
(base-5):
(646)10 = (11)5(20)52 + (4)5(20)5+ (11)5
= (11)5(400)5 + (130)5+ (11)5
= (4400)5 + (141)5
=
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33

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
Back at Ogg. Convert 646 to base-5. Try
to do all operations as an Oggian
(base-5):
(646)10 = (11)5(20)52 + (4)5(20)5+ (11)5
= (11)5(400)5 + (130)5+ (11)5
= (4400)5 + (141)5
= (10041)5
Thinking like an Oggian hurts brain too
much
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34

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
Given an integer n and a base b find the
string u such that (u )b = n.
Pseudocode:
string represent(pos. integer n, pos. integer b)
q = n, i = 0
while( q > 0 )
ui = q mod b
q = q/b
i = i +1
return ui ui-1 ui-2 u2 u1 u0
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35

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
EG: Convert 646 to Oggian (base-5):
i

ui = q mod b

q = q/b

646

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36

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
EG: Convert 646 to Oggian (base-5):
i

ui = q mod b

q = q/b

646

646 mod 5 = 1

646/5 =129

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37

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
EG: Convert 646 to Oggian (base-5):
i

ui = q mod b

q = q/b

0
1

646

646 mod 5 = 1
129 mod 5 = 4

646/5 =129
129/5 =25

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38

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
EG: Convert 646 to Oggian (base-5):
i

ui = q mod b

q = q/b

0
1
2

646

646 mod 5 = 1
129 mod 5 = 4
25 mod 5 = 0

646/5 =129
129/5 =25
25/5 =5

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39

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
EG: Convert 646 to Oggian (base-5):
i

ui = q mod b

q = q/b

0
1
2
3

646

646 mod 5 = 1
129 mod 5 = 4
25 mod 5 = 0
5 mod 5 = 0

646/5 =129
129/5 =25
25/5 =5
5/5 = 1

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40

Number Systems
Reverse Conversion
EG: Convert 646 to Oggian (base-5):
i

ui = q mod b

q = q/b

0
1
2
3
4

646

646 mod 5 = 1
129 mod 5 = 4
25 mod 5 = 0
5 mod 5 = 0
1 mod 5 = 1

646/5 =129
129/5 =25
25/5 =5
5/5 = 1
1/5 =0

Reading last column in reverse: 10041

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41

Number Systems
In-Class Exercise
Some number-theory facts are basedependent. For example First-Grade
Teachers Rule:
A base-10 number is divisible by 3 iff the
sum of its digits are. Formally, let
n = (uk uk-1 uk-2 u2ku1 u 0)10. Then:

n mod 3

u
i 0

mod 3

EG: 3|12135 because 3|(1+2+1+3+5 = 12)

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42

Arithmetical Algorithms
Addition
Numbers are added from least
significant digit to most, while
carrying any overflow resulting
from adding a column:
base-10

base-16

Carry:
x
+y

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9
44

Arithmetical Algorithms
Addition
Numbers are added from least
significant digit to most, while
carrying any overflow resulting
from adding a column:
base-10
1

Carry:
x
+y

base-16

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9
9

45

Arithmetical Algorithms
Addition
Numbers are added from least
significant digit to most, while
carrying any overflow resulting
from adding a column:
base-10
1

Carry:
x
+y

base-16

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46

Arithmetical Algorithms
Addition
Numbers are added from least
significant digit to most, while
carrying any overflow resulting
from adding a column:
base-10
1

Carry:
x
+y

base-16
1

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47

Arithmetical Algorithms
Addition
Numbers are added from least
significant digit to most, while
carrying any overflow resulting
from adding a column:
base-10
Carry:

x
+y

base-16
1

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48

Arithmetical Algorithms
Addition
Numbers are added from least
significant digit to most, while
carrying any overflow resulting
from adding a column:
base-10
Carry:

x
+y

base-16

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49

Addition of Positive
Numbers
string add(strings xk xk-1x1x0, yk yk-1y1y0 , int
base)
carry = 0, xk+1 = yk+1 = 0
for(i = 0 to k+1)
digitSum = carry + xi + yi
zi = digitSum mod base
carry = digitSum /base
return zk+1zk zk-1z1z0
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50

1s Complement
2s Complement
The binary number system makes some
operations especially simple and
efficient under certain representations.
Two such representations are

1s complement
2s complement

Each makes subtraction much simpler.

Each has disadvantage that number
length is pre-determined.
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51

1s Complement
Fix k bits. (EG, k = 8 for bytes)
Represent numbers with |x | < 2k-1
Left-most bit tells the sign

0 positive (so positive no.s as usual)

1 negative (but other bits change too!)

Positive numbers the same as standard

binary expansion
Negative numbers gotten by taking the
boolean complement, hence nomenclature

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52

1s Complement
Examples
k = 8:
00010010 represents 18
11101101 represents -18
Notice: when add these representations as
usual get 11111111, i.e. negative
00000000 or -0 = 0.
Guess: adding numbers with mixed sign
works the same as adding positive numbers
Trade-off: 0 not unique

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53

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum
overflow
answerL11

0
1

0
1

1
1

0
0

0
0

1
1

0
1

54

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum
overflow
answerL11

0
1

0
1

1
1

0
0

0
0

1
1

0
1
1
55

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum
overflow
answerL11

0
1

0
1

1
1

0
0

0
0

1
1
0

0
1
1
56

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum
overflow
answerL11

0
1

0
1

1
1

0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0

0
1
1
57

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum
overflow
answerL11

0
1

0
1

1
1

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0

0
1
1
58

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum
overflow
answerL11

0
1

0
1

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0

0
1
1
59

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum
overflow
answerL11

0
1

0
1
0

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0

0
1
1
60

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
1
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum
overflow
answerL11

0
1
0

0
1
0

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0

0
1
1
61

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
1
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum 0
overflow
answerL11

0
1
0

0
1
0

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0

0
1
1
62

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
1
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum 0
overflow
answerL11

0
1
0

0
1
0

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0

0
1
1
1

63

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
1
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum 0
overflow
answerL11

0
1
0

0
1
0

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0
1

0
1
1
1

64

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
1
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum 0
overflow
answerL11

0
1
0

0
1
0

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0
1

0
1
1
1

65

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
1
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum 0
overflow
answerL11

0
1
0

0
1
0

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0
1

0
1
1
1

66

1s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition except:
if the final carry is 1, cycle the carry to the least
significant digit:
00010010 represents 18, 11110011 represents -12
Sum 00000110 represents 6:

Carry:
1
x 0
+y 1
pre-sum 0
overflow
answerL110

0
1
0

0
1
0

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0
1

0
1
1
1

67

2s Complement
Fixes the non-uniqueness of zero
problem
Adding mixed signs still easy
No cycle overflow (pre-computed)
Javas approach (under the hood)
Same fixed length k , sign convention,
and definition of positive numbers as
with 1s complement
Represent numbers with -2(k-1) x < 2(k-1)

EG. Javas byte ranges from -128 to +127

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68

2s Complement
Negatives (slightly harder than 1s comp.):
1. Compute 1s complement
2. Add 1
Summarize: -x = x + 1.
00010010 represents 18
11101101 + 1 = 11101110 represents -18.
Add together without over-flow: 00000000
Q: What are the ranges of Javas 32-bit int
and 64-bit long? (All of Javas integer
types use 2s complement)
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69

2s Complement
A:

1) 32-bit ints: Largest int =

011111.1 = 231-1 = 2,147,483,647

Smallest int =
100000.0 = -231 = -2,147,483,648
2) 64-bit longs: Largest long =
011111.1 = 263-1 =
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
Smallest int =
100000.0 = -263 =
-9,223,372,036,854,775,808
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70

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary
addition no exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30)10:
Carry:
x 1
+y

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1
1

1
1

0
1

1
0

1
1

1
0

0
0

71

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary
addition no exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30)10:
Carry:
x 1
+y

L11

1
1

1
1

0
1

1
0

1
1

1
0

0
0
0

72

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary
addition no exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30)10:
Carry:
x 1
+y

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1
1

1
1

0
1

1
0

1
1

1
0
1

0
0
0

73

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary
addition no exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30)10:
Carry:
x 1
+y

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1
1

1
1

0
1

1
0

1
1
0

1
0
1

0
0
0

74

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary
addition no exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30)10:
Carry:
x 1
+y

L11

1
1

1
1

0
1

1
0
0

1
1
0

1
0
1

0
0
0

75

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary
addition no exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30)10:
Carry:
x 1
+y

L11

1
1

1
1

0
1
0

1
0
0

1
1
0

1
0
1

0
0
0

76

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary
addition no exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30)10:
Carry:
x 1
+y

L11

1
1

1
1
1

0
1
0

1
0
0

1
1
0

1
0
1

0
0
0

77

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary
addition no exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30)10:
Carry: 1
x 1
+y

L11

1
1
1

1
1
1

0
1
0

1
0
0

1
1
0

1
0
1

0
0
0

78

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary
addition no exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30)10:
Carry: 1
x 1
+y

1
1

L11

1
1
1

1
1
1

0
1
0

1
0
0

1
1
0

1
0
1

0
0
0

79

2s Complement
Addition
Addition is the same as usual binary addition no
exceptions!!
11101110 = (-18)10, 11110100 = (-12)10
Sum together (11100010) = (-30) 10:

Carry: 1
x 1
+y

1
1

1
1
1

1
1
1

0
1
0

1
0
0

1
1
0

1
0
1

0
0
0

As a final check take the negative to see if get 30:

(11100010+1) = (00011101+1) = 00011110.
YES!

L11

80

Positive Binary
Multiplication
Long multiplication simplifies in binary because
multiplying by 2k amounts to left-shifting kplaces (<<k), and each time multiply either by
02k or 12k.
x
1 0 1 1
EG:

y
1(x0)
0(x1)
0(x2)
1(x3)
Add rows:
L11

81

Positive Binary
Multiplication
Long multiplication simplifies in binary because
multiplying by 2k amounts to left-shifting kplaces (<<k), and each time multiply either by
02k or 12k.
x
1 0 1 1
EG:

y
1(x0)
0(x1)
0(x2)
1(x3)
Add rows:
L11

1
1

0
0

0
1

1
1

82

Positive Binary
Multiplication
Long multiplication simplifies in binary because
multiplying by 2k amounts to left-shifting kplaces (<<k), and each time multiply either by
02k or 12k.
x
1 0 1 1
EG:

y
1(x0)
0(x1)
0(x2)
1(x3)
Add rows:
L11

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
1
0

1
1

83

Positive Binary
Multiplication
Long multiplication simplifies in binary because
multiplying by 2k amounts to left-shifting kplaces (<<k), and each time multiply either by
02k or 12k.
x
1 0 1 1
EG:

y
1(x0)
0(x1)
0(x2)
1(x3)
Add rows:
L11

0
0

1
1
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
1
0

1
1

84

Positive Binary
Multiplication
Long multiplication simplifies in binary because
multiplying by 2k amounts to left-shifting kplaces (<<k), and each time multiply either by
02k or 12k.
x
1 0 1 1
EG:

y
1(x0)
0(x1)
0(x2)
1(x3) 1
Add rows:
L11

0
0

0
0
1

1
1
0
0
1

0
0
0
0

0
1
0

1
1

85

Positive Binary
Multiplication
Long multiplication simplifies in binary because
multiplying by 2k amounts to left-shifting kplaces (<<k), and each time multiply either by
02k or 12k.
x
1 0 1 1
EG:

y
1(x0)
0(x1)
0(x2)
1(x3) 1
Add rows: 1
L11

0
0
1

0
0
1
0

1
1
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
0

0
1
0

1
1

86

Arithmetical Algorithms
Binary Multiplication
bitstring multiply(bitstrings xk xk-1x1x0, yk yk-1
y 1 y 0)
x = xk xk-1x1x0
p = 0 // the partial product
for(i = 0 to k+1)
if(yi == 1)
p = add(p , x i ) // prev. algorithm
return p
L11

87