Chapter 31

OBJECTIVES
After studying Chapter 31, the reader will be able to:

1. Explain how a fuel cell generates electricity.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fuel
cells.
3. List the types of fuel cells.
4. Explain how ultracapacitors work.
5. Discuss alternative energy sources.
Automotive Fuel and Emissions Control Systems, 2/e

By James D. Halderman and Jim Linder
2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

Pearson Prentice Hall - Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
FUEL-CELL TECHNOLOGY
What Is a Fuel Cell?
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the
chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen is converted into
electrical energy.
FIGURE 31-1 Ford Motor Company has produced a number of

demonstration fuel-cell vehicles based on the Ford Focus.

What Is a Fuel Cell?
FIGURE 31-2 Hydrogen does not exist by itself in nature. Energy must be
expended to separate it from other, more complex materials.

Benefits of a Fuel Cell
A fuel cell can be used to move a vehicle by generating
electricity to power electric drive motors, as well as powering
the remainder of the vehicles electrical system.
FIGURE 31-3 The Mercedes-Benz B-Class fuel-cell car was introduced in 2005.

Benefits of a Fuel Cell
A fuel-cell vehicle (FCV)
uses the fuel cell as its only
source of power, whereas a
fuel-cell hybrid vehicle
(FCHV) would also have an
electrical storage device
that can be used to power
the vehicle.
FIGURE 31-4 The Toyota FCHV is based

on the Highlander platform and uses much
of Toyotas Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD)
technology in its design.

Fuel-Cell Challenges
While major automobile manufacturers continue to

build demonstration vehicles and work on improving
fuel-cell system design, no vehicle powered by a
fuel cell has been placed into mass production.
There are a number of reasons for this, including:
High cost
Lack of refueling infrastructure
Safety perception
Insufficient vehicle range
Lack of durability
Freeze starting problems
Insufficient power density

Types of Fuel Cells


PEM FUEL CELLS

Description and Operation
The Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell is also

known as a Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC).
The PEM fuel cell is known for its lightweight and
compact design, as well as its ability to operate at
ambient temperatures.
This means that a PEM fuel cell can start quickly and
produce full power without an extensive warmup period.


PEM FUEL CELLS

Description and Operation
FIGURE 31-5 The polymer electrolyte membrane only allows H+ ions (protons)
to pass through it. This means that electrons must follow the external circuit and
pass through the load to perform work.

PEM FUEL CELLS

Fuel-Cell Stacks
A single fuel cell by itself is not particularly useful, as it will
generate less than 1 volt of electrical potential.
It is more common for hundreds of fuel cells to be built
together in a fuel-cell stack.
FIGURE 31-6 A fuel-cell stack is made up of hundreds of individual cells

connected in series.

PEM FUEL CELLS

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
High-pressure cylinders are one method of storing

hydrogen onboard a vehicle for use in a fuel cell.
This is a simple and lightweight storage method, but
often does not provide sufficient vehicle driving
range.
Another approach has been to fuel a modified PEM
fuel cell with liquid methanol instead of hydrogen
gas.


PEM FUEL CELLS

FIGURE 31-7 A direct methanol fuel cell uses a methanol/water solution

for fuel instead of hydrogen gas.

PEM FUEL CELLS

FIGURE 31-8 A direct methanol fuel cell can be refueled similar to a

gasoline-powered vehicle.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS
Humidifiers
Fuel-Cell Cooling Systems
Air Supply Pumps
Fuel-Cell Hybrid Vehicles
Secondary Batteries.
Ultracapacitors.
Fuel-Cell Traction Motors.
Transaxles.
Power Control Units.
Hydrogen Storage
High-Pressure Compressed Gas.
Liquid Hydrogen.
Solid Storage of Hydrogen.

FIGURE 31-9 Power train layout in a Honda FCX fuel-cell vehicle. Note the use
of a humidifier behind the fuel-cell stack to maintain moisture levels in the
membrane electrode assemblies.

FIGURE 31-10 The Honda FCX uses one large radiator for cooling the fuel cell,
and two smaller ones on either side for cooling drivetrain components.

FIGURE 31-11 Space is limited at the front of the Toyota FCHV engine
compartment, so an auxiliary heat exchanger is located under the vehicle to help
cool the fuel-cell stack.

FIGURE 31-12 The secondary battery in a fuel-cell hybrid vehicle is made

up of many individual cells connected in series, much like a fuel-cell stack.

FIGURE 31-13 The Honda ultracapacitor module and construction of

the individual cells.

FIGURE 31-14 An ultracapacitor can be used in place of a high-voltage battery

in a hybrid electric vehicle. This example is from the Honda FCX fuel-cell hybrid
vehicle.

FIGURE 31-15 Drive motors in fuel-cell hybrid vehicles often use stator
assemblies similar to ones found in Toyota hybrid electric vehicles. The rotor
turns inside the stator and has permanent magnets on its outer circumference.

FIGURE 31-16 The General Motors Skateboard concept uses a fuelcell propulsion system with wheel motors at all four corners.

FIGURE 31-17 The electric drive motor and transaxle assembly from a Toyota
FCHV. Note the three orange cables, indicating that this motor is powered by
high-voltage three-phase alternating current.

FIGURE 31-18 The power control unit (PCU) on a Honda FCX fuel-cell
hybrid vehicle is located under the hood.

FIGURE 31-19 Toyotas FCHV uses a power control unit that directs
electrical energy flow between the fuel cell, battery, and drive motor.

FIGURE 31-20 This GM fuel-cell vehicle uses compressed hydrogen in

three high-pressure storage tanks.

FIGURE 31-21 The Toyota FCHV uses high-pressure storage tanks that are
rated at 350 bar. This is the equivalent of 5,000 pounds per square inch.

FIGURE 31-22 The high-pressure fitting used to refuel a fuel-cell hybrid vehicle.

FIGURE 31-23 Note that high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks

must be replaced in 2020.

FIGURE 31-24 GMs Hydrogen3 has a range of

249 miles when using liquid hydrogen.

FIGURE 31-25 Refueling a vehicle with liquid hydrogen.


HYDROGEN FUEL = NO CARBON
FIGURE 31-26 Carbon deposits, such as these, are created by incomplete

combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel.

HYDRAULIC HYBRID STORAGE SYSTEM

Ford Motor Co. is experimenting with a system it
calls Hydraulic Power Assist (HPA).
This system converts kinetic energy to hydraulic
pressure, and then uses that pressure to help
accelerate the vehicle.
It is currently being tested on a four-wheel-drive
(4WD) Lincoln Navigator with a 4.0-L V-8 engine in
place of the standard 5.4-L engine.


HCCI
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
(HCCI) is a combustion process.
HCCI is the combustion of a very lean gasoline air
fuel mixture without the use of a spark ignition.
It is a low-temperature, chemically controlled
(flameless) combustion process.


HCCI
FIGURE 31-27 Both diesel and conventional gasoline engines create exhaust emissions due
to high peak temperatures created in the combustion chamber. The lower combustion
temperatures during HCCI operation result in high efficiency with reduced emissions.

PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a
hybrid electric vehicle that is designed to be
plugged into an electrical outlet at night to charge
the batteries.
By charging the batteries in the vehicle, it can
operate using electric power alone (stealth mode)
for a longer time, thereby reducing the use of the
internal combustion engine (ICE).


THE FUTURE FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES

The future of electric vehicles depends on many
factors, including:
The legislative and environmental incentives to overcome
the cost and research efforts to bring a usable electric
vehicle to the market.
The cost of alternative energy.
Advancement in battery technology that would allow the
use of lighter-weight and higher-energy batteries


Cold-Weather Concerns
Hot-Weather Concerns
Recharging Methods and Concerns
Charging Methods
Conductive Charging.
Inductive Charging.


FIGURE 31-28 A typical electric vehicle charging station on the campus of

a college in Southern California.

FIGURE 31-29 A conductive-type charging connector. This type of battery charging

connector is sometimes called an AVCON connector, named for the manufacturer.


FIGURE 31-30 An inductive-type electric vehicle battery charger connector.

This type of connector fits into a charging slot in the vehicle, but does not make
electrical contact.

WHAT IS NEDRA?
NEDRA is the National Electric Drag Racing Association
that holds drag races for electric-powered vehicles
throughout the United States.
FIGURE 31-31 (a) The motor in a compact electric drag car. This 8-inch-diameter motor is
controlled by an electronic controller that limits the voltage to 170 volts to prevent
commutator flash-over yet provides up to 2,000 amperes. This results in an amazing 340,000
watts or 455 Hp. (b) The batteries used for the compact drag car include twenty 12-volt
absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries connected in series to provide 240 volts.

WIND POWER
Wind power is used to help supplement electric
power generation in many parts of the country.
Because AC electricity cannot be stored, this energy
source is best used to reduce the use of natural gas and
coal to help reduce CO2 emissions.


WIND POWER
FIGURE 31-32 Wind power capacity by area. (Courtesy of U.S. Department of Energy)

WIND POWER
FIGURE 31-33 A typical wind generator that is used to generate electricity.


HYDROELECTRIC POWER
Hydroelectric power is limited to locations where
there are dammed rivers and hydroelectric plants.
However, electricity can and is transmitted long
distancesso that electricity generated at the
Hoover Dam can be used in California and other
remote locations


HYDROELECTRIC POWER
FIGURE 31-34 The Hoover Dam in Nevada/Arizona is used to create

electricity for use in the southwest United States.

SUMMARY
1. The chemical reaction inside a fuel cell is the opposite of
electrolysis in that electricity is created when hydrogen and
oxygen are allowed to combine in the fuel cell.
2. A fuel cell produces electricity and releases heat and water
as the only by-products.
3. The major disadvantages of fuel cells include:
High cost
Lack of hydrogen refueling stations
Short range
Freezing-temperature starting problems
4. Types of fuel cells include PEM (the most commonly used),

PAFC, MCFC, and SOFC.

SUMMARY
5. Ultracapacitors are an alternative to batteries for
the storage of electrical energy.
6. A gasoline-powered engine can be more efficient if
it uses a homogeneous charge compression
ignition (HCCI) combustion process.
7. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles could expand the
range of hybrid vehicles by operating on battery
power alone.
8. Wind power and hydroelectric power are being
used to recharge plug-in hybrids and provide
electrical power for all uses, without harmful
emissions.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How does a fuel cell work?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
fuel cells?
3. What are the uses of the various types of fuel
cells?
4. How does an ultracapacitor work?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
using hydrogen?
6. What alternative power sources could be used for
vehicles?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. A fuel cell produces electricity from _____ and
_____.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Gasoline/oxygen
Nitrogen/hydrogen
Hydrogen/oxygen
Water/oxygen


CHAPTER QUIZ
1. A fuel cell produces electricity from _____ and
_____.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Gasoline/oxygen
Nitrogen/hydrogen
Hydrogen/oxygen
Water/oxygen


CHAPTER QUIZ
2. What are the by-products (emissions) from a fuel
cell?
a) Water
b) CO2
c) CO
d) Nonmethane hydrocarbon


CHAPTER QUIZ
2. What are the by-products (emissions) from a fuel
cell?
a) Water
b) CO2
c) CO
d) Nonmethane hydrocarbon


CHAPTER QUIZ
3. Which type of fuel cell is the most likely to be used
to power vehicles?
a)
b)
c)
d)
PAFC
PEM
MCFC
SOFC


CHAPTER QUIZ
3. Which type of fuel cell is the most likely to be used
to power vehicles?
a)
b)
c)
d)
PAFC
PEM
MCFC
SOFC


CHAPTER QUIZ
4. Which liquid fuel could be used to directly power a
fuel cell?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Methanol
Ethanol
Biodiesel
Unleaded gasoline


CHAPTER QUIZ
4. Which liquid fuel could be used to directly power a
fuel cell?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Methanol
Ethanol
Biodiesel
Unleaded gasoline


CHAPTER QUIZ
5. Which is not a function of an ultracapacitor?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Can pass AC current

Can be charged with DC current
Discharges DC current
Can pass DC current


CHAPTER QUIZ
5. Which is not a function of an ultracapacitor?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Can pass AC current

Can be charged with DC current
Discharges DC current
Can pass DC current


CHAPTER QUIZ
6. Hydrogen is commonly stored at what pressure?
a)
b)
c)
d)
100,000 PSI
50,000 PSI
5,000 PSI
1,000 PSI


CHAPTER QUIZ
6. Hydrogen is commonly stored at what pressure?
a)
b)
c)
d)
100,000 PSI
50,000 PSI
5,000 PSI
1,000 PSI


CHAPTER QUIZ
7. Hydrogen storage tanks are usually constructed
from _____.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Steel
Aluminum
Carbon fiber
Both b and c


CHAPTER QUIZ
7. Hydrogen storage tanks are usually constructed
from _____.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Steel
Aluminum
Carbon fiber
Both b and c


CHAPTER QUIZ
8. HCCI is a process that eliminates what parts or
components in a gasoline engine?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fuel tank
Battery
Fuel injectors
Ignition system


CHAPTER QUIZ
8. HCCI is a process that eliminates what parts or
components in a gasoline engine?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fuel tank
Battery
Fuel injectors
Ignition system


CHAPTER QUIZ
9. A plug-in hybrid is different from a conventional
hybrid electric vehicle because it has _____.
a)
b)
c)
d)
A built-in battery charger

Li Ox batteries
More batteries
Bigger motor/generator


CHAPTER QUIZ
9. A plug-in hybrid is different from a conventional
hybrid electric vehicle because it has _____.
a)
b)
c)
d)
A built-in battery charger

Li Ox batteries
More batteries
Bigger motor/generator


CHAPTER QUIZ
10. Which energy source(s) is (are) currently being
used to help reduce the use of fossil fuels?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Hydrogen
Wind power
Hydroelectric power
Both b and c


CHAPTER QUIZ
10. Which energy source(s) is (are) currently being
used to help reduce the use of fossil fuels?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Hydrogen
Wind power
Hydroelectric power
Both b and c



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OBJECTIVES

After studying Chapter 31, the reader will be able to:

Automotive Fuel and Emissions Control Systems, 2/e

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FIGURE 31-1 Ford Motor Company has produced a number of

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FIGURE 31-4 The Toyota FCHV is based

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

While major automobile manufacturers continue to

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

Automotive Fuel and Emissions Control Systems, 2/e

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

PEM FUEL CELLS

The Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell is also

Automotive Fuel and Emissions Control Systems, 2/e

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

PEM FUEL CELLS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

PEM FUEL CELLS

FIGURE 31-6 A fuel-cell stack is made up of hundreds of individual cells

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

PEM FUEL CELLS

High-pressure cylinders are one method of storing

Automotive Fuel and Emissions Control Systems, 2/e

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

PEM FUEL CELLS

FIGURE 31-7 A direct methanol fuel cell uses a methanol/water solution

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

PEM FUEL CELLS

FIGURE 31-8 A direct methanol fuel cell can be refueled similar to a

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

FIGURE 31-12 The secondary battery in a fuel-cell hybrid vehicle is made

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

FIGURE 31-13 The Honda ultracapacitor module and construction of

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

FIGURE 31-14 An ultracapacitor can be used in place of a high-voltage battery

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS

FIGURE 31-20 This GM fuel-cell vehicle uses compressed hydrogen in

2009 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS