DASAR DASAR FILSAFAT

(FILOSOFI & ETIKA BIDANG KESEHATAN)

PROF.M.T. KAMALUDDIN

PROGRAM STUDI ILMU KEDOKTERAN

FAKULTAS KEDOKTERAN UNSRI
2016

Philosophy is a great intellectual

adventure while at the same time what it
discusses is one of the most important
things we can do with our lives.

 Philosophy - Etymology
philia (love) + sophia (wisdom) = love of wisdom

Rationalism

Descartes

Locke

Spinoz
a

Leibniz

Berkeley

Hume

Empiricism

Wolf

Kant

Cell-Mediated Cytotoxic Responses

Jan 2, 2007

Pharmacology

Time Course of Viral Infection

Group I
Group II

Logic Epistemology Metaphysics

Ethics
Philosophy of mind
Philosophy of language
Philosophy of science

Group III
Ancient philosophy
Medieval philosophy
Modern philosophy:
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

Political philosophy
Aesthetics
Continental philosophy
Philosophy of religion
10

11

THE SUBJECTS OF PHILOSOPHY

12

Philosophy of science
What defines a law of nature?
How does it differ from other claims about the world?
How if at all are scientific theories justified by evidence?
How can we know that our laws of nature
describe features of the world that will persist next time
we examine it?

13

Epistemology
concerned with the nature, scope and structure of
knowledge.
what knowledge is
analysis of the concept to guide us in :
determining the scope of knowledge,
deciding how much knowledge we have.
attempt to answer sceptical challenges to the
sources that are usually assumed to ;
produce knowledge,
sources such as perception,
memory,
testimony of others,
various kinds of reasoning.
14

Metaphysics
treats the concept of existence (or being) along with a
host of related concepts.
different sorts of entities thought to exist. To mention a
few: stones, tables, dogs, people, unicorns, phlogiston,
quarks, spacetime, events, obligations, numbers,
properties, propositions, thoughts, minds, souls, ghosts,
and God.
think of any significant feature these entities would
have in common, if they all really did exist, beyond
simply existing.
15

Ontology
philosophicalstudyofthenatureofbeing,becoming,existence,or
reality,aswellasthebasiccategoriesofbeingandtheirrelations.

Philosophy of mind
studiesthenatureofthemind,mentalevents,mentalfunctions,mentalproperties,
consciousness,andtheirrelationshiptothephysicalbody,particularlythebrain.

Philosophy of space and time

branchofphilosophyconcernedwiththeissuessurroundingtheontology,
epistemology,andcharacterofspaceandtime.

Philosophy of action
theoriesabouttheprocessescausingwillfulhumanbodilymovementsofamoreor
lesscomplexkind.Thisareaofthoughthasattractedthestronginterestof
philosopherseversinceAristotle'sNicomacheanEthics(ThirdBook).

16

Logic
the study of good reasoning.
what makes good reasoning good.
the kind of connection between the premises from
which we reason and the conclusions at which we
arrive.
a normative discipline: it aims to elucidate how we
ought to reason.
Reasoning is at the heart of philosophy, so logic has
always been a central concern for philosophers.

17

Ethics
enterprise, and what qualifications do they bring to it?
particularly reflective or analytical, faces moral questions
about what to do, and more generally about what things
should be valued.
Depending on temperament, the questions people think
about may be straightforwardly practical
more abstract (What is the good life? What is justice? Why
should we be moral?).

18

BIDANG/WILAYAH FILSAFAT

Estetika
Etika,
Religi

MANUSIA

Filsafat Ilmu
Logika
Metodologi

PhilosophyofScience
Scienceisthestudyofalternative
explanations.Whatisanexplanation?

Explanation
Anexplanationisananswertothequestion,
Whydoesthathappen?
Anexplanationisalsocalledatheory.
Itconsistsofstatementsfromwhichone
candeducethephenomenatobeexplained.
Itmustsatisfyseveralcriteria

CriteriaforExplanation

Deductive
Meaningful
Predictive
Causal
General

METODE FILSAFAT ILMU

1. DEDUKSI(METODEBERFIKIRYANGBERTOLAKDALAMHAL-HALYANGUMUMKEKHUSUS)
2. INDUKSI(METODEBERFIKIRYANGBERTOLAKDARIHAL-HALYANGKHUSUSKEUMUM)
3. DIALEKTIKA(METODEMENCAPAIDEFENISISEBUAHKONSEPDENGANCARAMENGUJICIRICIRIUMUMYANGDITEMUKABDALAMSEBUAHCONTOHKHUSUSDARIKONSEPITU)

DIALEKTIKAADALAHPENGETAHUANMETAFISIKA
YANGMENDATANGKANATAUMENGHASILKAN
PENGETAHUANTERTINGGI
4. LOGIKA(METODEBERFIKIRDENGANMENGGUNAKANPENALARANLOGISDANSISTEMATIS
DENGANBERDASARKANPADAHUKUMDANKETENTUANYANGBERLAKU)

TUJUAN FILSAFAT ILMU

1.

MENDALAMI UNSUR-UNSUR POKOK ILMU SEHINGGASECARA

MENYELURUHKITADAPATMEMAHAMISUMBER,HAKIKATDAN
TUJUANILMU

2.

MEMAHAMISEJARAHPERTUMBUHAN,PERKEMBANGANDAN
KEMAJUANILMUDIBERBAGAIBIDANG,SEHINGGAKITA
MENDAPATGAMBARANTENTANGPROSESILMUKONTEMPORER
SECARAHISTORIS

3.

MENJADIPEDOMANPARADOSEN,MAHASISWA,AKADEMISIDAN
PRAKTISIKEILMUANUNTUKMENDALAMISTUDIUTAMANYA
DALAMMEMBEDAKANPERIHALILMIAH DAN NON ILMIAH

4.MENDORONGCALONILMUAN,ILMUANDANPARA
AKADEMISIAGARKONSISTEN MENGGALI DAN
MENGEMBANGKAN ILMU PENGETAHUANNYA
5.MEMPERTEGASBAHWADALAMPERSOALANILMU
-PENGETAHUAN DAN AGAMA TIDAK ADA
PERTENTANGAN DAN TIDAK PERLU
DIPERTENTANGKAN
6.MENDUDUKKANRANAHILMUPENGETAHUANDENGAN
PERSOALANSENIDANKEINDAHANBERADADALAM
SATUKUTUB YANG SAMA DAN TIDAK TERPISAHKAN

ManfaatFilsafatIlmu
Pertama,kemampuanmengamatifenomenadisekelilingnyadengancermat
danakanbergunabagipenelitiannya(pengamatan/observasi)terhadapberbagai
gejalaatauperistiwa,menemukandata,merumuskanhipotesis,danpembuktian
teori.
Kedua,kemampuananalisissecarakritis,baiksecarasintesis,dialeksis,
komparatif,maupundialogis.
Ketiga, dapatmelihat,meramalkan,ataumemprediksihubunganantaragejala
satusegalalainnyasecaralogisdanhubunganantaragejalasatudangejala
lainnyasecaralogisdansistematis.
Keempat,mampumemecahkanberbagaimasalahatauproblem,baikyang
berkaitandenganduniailmiahmaupunyangproblem,baikyangberkaitan
denganduniailmiahmaupunyangberkaitandenganduniapengetahuanlainnya
(duniakerja)secaratuntasdancermatatasdasarpertimbanganrasionalatau
logis.
Kelima,mampumengembangkanpenalaransertamampumelahirkan
kreativitasdalamkegiatanilmiah(sepertimenciptakandanmengembangkan
teorisertateknologiyangtepatbagimasyarakat.

PENGERTIAN
PENGETAHUAN
1.TAHUKESELURUHANYANGDIKETAHUIYANGBELUMTERSUSUN,BAIK
MENGENAIMETAFISIKMAUPUNFISIK
2.INFORMASIYANGBERUPACOMMONSENSEMASIHTERSERAKDANUMUM
3.ILMUSEPERTILIDIYANGSUDAHDIRAUTDANTELAHMENJADI
SEKUMPULANSAPULIDI,SEDANGPENGETAHUANSEPERTILIDI-LIDIYANG
MASIHBERSERAKANDIPOHONKELAPA,DIPASAR,DANTEMPATLAINYANG
BELUMTERSUSUNDENGANBAIK

PENGERTIAN ILMU
ILMUADALAHSERANGKAIANKETERANGAN
YANGTERATUR,SISTEMATIS,RASIONAL,
LOGIS,EMPIRIS,UNIVERSAL,OBJEKTIF,
TERBUKA,DAPATDIUKURSERTADAPAT
DIUJIKEBENARANNYABAIKSECARA
TEORETISDANEMPIRIS

KRITERIAKEBENARANILMU
1.

KOHERENSI(TEORIKEBENARANYANGMENDASARKANDIRI
PADAKRITERIAKEBENARANTENTANGKONSISTENSISUATU
ARGUMENTASI)---KONSISTENSIBERARTISISTEMATISDAN
SISTEMIK

2.KORESPONDENSI(TEORIKEBENARANYANGMENDASARKAN
DIRIPADAKRITERIATENTANGKESESUAIANANTARAMATERI
YANGDIKANDUNGSUATUPERNYATAANDENGANOBJEK
PERNYATAAN)---MANIS,TAWAR,ASIN
3.PRAGMATISME(TEORIKEBENARANYANGMENDASARKANDIRI
PADAKRITERIATENTANGBERFUNGSIATAUTIDAKNYASUATU
PERNYATAANDALAMLINGKUPRUANGDANWAKTU

FUNGSI ILMU
4tujuanilmupengetahuan:
(1) Fungsi deskriptif:menggambarkan,melukiskandan
memaparkansuatuobyekataumasalahsehinggamudah
dipelajari
(2) Fungsi pengembangan,menemukanhasililmuyangbaru
(3) Fungsi prediksi,meramalkankejadianyangbesar
kemungkinanterjadisehinggadapatdicaritindakan
percegahannya
(4) Fungsi Kontrol,mengendalikanperistiwayangtidak
dikehendaki.
Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu
(Kedokteran)

30

THESCIENTIFICMETHOD
1.
2.
3.
4.

Observeanddescribeaphenomenonorgroupofphenomena.
Formulate hypotheses toexplainthephenomena;hypothesesoftentaketheform
ofaproposedcausalmechanismormathematicalrelationship.
Usethehypothesesto predict theexistenceoractionsofotherphenomena,orto
predictquantitativelytheresultsofnewobservations.
Performadditionaldatacollectionorrepeatexperimentaltestsofthepredictions
byseveralindependentexperimentersusingproperlyperformedtechniquesor
experiments.

THESCIENTIFICMETHOD
Thescientificmethoddoesnotallowanyhypothesis
tobeproventrue.
Hypothesescanbedisproven,inwhichcasethat
hypothesisisrejectedasfalse.
Ahypothesiswhichwithstandsatestdesignedto
falsifyitestablishesalevelofprobabilitythatthe
hypothesisaccuratelyexplainsdataandcanbeused
forfurtherpredictions,subjecttofurthertests.

Scientific method
abodyoftechniquesforinvestigatingphenomena, acquiring
newknowledge,orcorrectingandintegrating
previousknowledge.
Scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering
observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject
to
specific principles of reasoning.
Ascientificmethodconsistsofthecollectionofdatathroughobservation
andexperimentation,andtheformulationandtestingofhypotheses.
Tokohscientificmethod:JohnStuartMill
Ibnal-Haytham(Alhazen),9651039,Basra(seekingtruth)

Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu

(Kedokteran)

33

THESCIENTIFICMETHOD
Observations/DataHypothesesHypothesisTesting
ModelsLawsTheories

Atsomepointintime,eachstagemustbereportedtothe
largerscientificcommunitybypresentationsor
publications.

HypothesisTesting

Epistemologi
(IlmuPengetahuan)
theory of knowledgeisthebranchofphilosophyconcernedwiththe
natureandscope(limitations)ofknowledge.
Itaddressesthequestions:
Whatisknowledge?
Howisknowledgeacquired?
Whatdopeopleknow?
Howdoweknowwhatweknow?

Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu

(Kedokteran)

36

Epistemologyingeneral,thekindof
knowledgeusuallydiscussedis
propositionalknowledge,alsoknown
as"knowledge-that"asopposedto
"knowledge-how.
TruthsKnowledge--Beliefs
Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu
(Kedokteran)

37

An analogy
S
Scciieenncceess

H
Huum
maanniittiieess

PPssyycchhoollooggyy

PPhhiilloossoopphhyy

the scientific field that

studies mental processes
and behavior (someone who
does psychology is a
psychologist )

the humanistic field that

attempts to resolve
fundamental questions through
reason (someone who does
philosophy is a philosopher )

Subfields

Subfields

behavioral psychology
behavioral psychophysics
clinical psychology
cognitive psychology
developmental psychology
Freudian psychology
Gestalt psychology
neuropsychology
etc.

aesthetics
epistemology
ethics
history of philosophy
logic
metaphysics
philosophy of language
philosophy of mind
philosophy of religion
philosophy of science
social-political philosophy

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Biologisthaveestablishedthatlivingthingsshare
sevencharacteristicsoflife.Thesecharacteristics
are:
1.OrganizationandCells
2.ResponsetoStimuli
3.Homeostasis
4.Metabolism(UseEnergy)
5.GrowthandDevelopment
6.Reproduction
7.ChangeThroughTime(Evolution)

Fig 1 Body defences against

infections

2009

The book of
Optics

T.J. Wickham, Ligand-directed

targeting of genes to the site of
disease, Nat. Med. 9(1) 135-139 (2003)

Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu

(Kedokteran)

42

Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu

(Kedokteran)

43

The House of Evidence

Reality
(objectivity)

Regulator

Clinical
research

Basic
science

Relevance
Research methods (Goals)

Systematic review
(meta-analysis)

Randomized
controlled trials
(attribution)

Laboratory
(mechanism)

Health services
research

Mixed
methods

Values

Epidemiology
research
(association)

Qualitative
research
(meanings)

Public
health

Clinicians

Patients

44

45

L
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y
46

Human

Laboratory

Animal
study

Human
study
47

METODOLOGI SAINTIFIKASI JAMU

Riskesdas
Ristoja
Mapping
dokter

herbal

Uji klinik
Di Dokter SJ
dan Poli
CAM

48

Traditio
nal
Healers
(Commu
nity)

Health
professional
s

Laborato
ry

49

Clear proposed mechanism of actions

Hongxiang Hui et al, Chin Med. 2009; 4: 11

50

51

Hongxiang Hui et al, Chin Med. 2009; 4: 11

Hongxiang Hui et al, Chin Med. 2009; 4: 11

52

Hongxiang Hui et al, Chin Med. 2009; 4: 11

53

Hongxiang Hui et al, Chin Med. 2009; 4: 11

54

CharacteristicsofScientificInquiry

Scienceis
1.basedonobservationandexperimentation
2.mathematicalandquantitative
3.naturalistic
4.basedonmodelsofnature
5.limited
6.dynamic
7.Amoral
8.Rational

Komposisi dasar tubuh manusia

Atom / unsur

Komposisi (%)

Fungsi dalam tubuh

Oksigen ( O )

65

Untuk pernafasan sel, hampir menempati

semua biomolekul tubuh

Karbon ( C )

18

Kerangka dasar molekul organik,krn dapat

membentuk 4 ikatan dengan atom lain

Hidrogen ( H )

10

Terkandung dalam senyawa organik ;

mempertahankan keseimbangan asam basa

Nitrogen ( N )

Komponen dasar pada semua protein dan

asam nukleat (DNA & RNA)

Kalsium ( Ca )

1,5

Komponen pada tulang & gigi,

keseimbangan asam-basa, kontraksi otot,
penghantaran simpul syaraf, pembekuan
darah

Fosfor ( P )

Komponen asam nukleat, tulang, dinding sel

; penting dalam penhgantaran panas.

Kalium ( K )

0,4

Ion positif utama dalam sel; berperan dalam

fungsi sel, kontraksi otot;keseimbangan
cairan dan elektrolit

Sulffur ( S )

0,3

Komponen pada sebaian besar protein dan

aktivasi enzim.

Natrium (Na)

0,2

Ion positif utama pada cairan jaringan tubuh

(interstisial) ; keseimbangan cairan ;
penghantaran impuls syaraf.

Magnesium (Mg)

0,1

Dalam darah (haemoglibin) & jaringan tubuh

lain ; ion penting dalam koenzim

Klor ( Cl )

0,1

Ion negatif utaman dalam cairan jaringan

tubuh ; menjaga keseimbangan cairan

Unsur lain yang terdapat dalam jumlah runut besi (Fe);komponen dalam haemoglibin & mioglobin,yodium (I);
komponen pada hormon tiroid, zink (Zn) ; sintesis protein dan pembelahan sel, tembaga (Cu) ; terlibat dalam
beberapa enzim, selenium (Se) ; berkaitan erat dengan fungsi vitamin E, dan unsur2x runut lain

 Bioteknologi dalam Bidang Medis :

antibodi,vaksin,insulin.

(Proses produksi insulin manusia dengan rekayasa genetika)

Filasafat
dalam Ilmu Kedokteran

HAKIKAT

PENGEMBANGAN

PENELITIAN

PELAYANAN

EVALUASI

Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu

(Kedokteran)

59

Proses berpikir/nalar dokter

Clinical reasoning
Instrument
Logika - Probabilitas

Clinical judgement
Intuisi (suara hati) : kombinasi rasio, perasaan, pengalaman
Dan keberanian ambil keputusan (mampu atasi resiko)

Action planning
Rencana kerja dokter
Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu
(Kedokteran)

60

Hubungan deduksi induksi

keyakinan hipotesis
(analitik aposteriori)

pengetahuan empiris
(sintetik aposteriori)

pengetahuan transendental
(sintetik apriori)

pengetahuan logis
(analitik apriori)
Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu
(Kedokteran)

61

PENDEKATAN
RASIONALISME

PENDEKATAN
EMPIRISME

Aturan
dasar

Aturan
dasar fakta

pengetahuan

sebelum
nya

Pengetahuan
yang Benar

Pengetahuan
Ilmiah [Ilmu]

2 Kriteria Utama :
Konsistensi pengetahuan baru dan sebelumnya
Kesesuaian pengetahuan yang dikembangkan dengan Fakta

Proses berpikir/nalar dokter

Instrument
Logika - Probabilitas

Clinical reasoning
Clinical judgement
Intuisi (suara hati) : kombinasi rasio, perasaan, pengalaman
Dan keberanian ambil keputusan (mampu atasi resiko)

Action planning
Rencana kerja dokter
Kamaluddin, Filsafat Ilmu
(Kedokteran)

63

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHILOSOPHY
Edited by John Shand,
First published 2003 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

Fundamentals of Philosophy
byDavidStewart,H.GeneBlocker

1996 byPrenticeHall
FundamentalsofPhilosophy
byAlexanderSpirkin,1990
Philosophy of Medicine (Handbook of the Philosophy of Science,
Volume 16) 1stEdition
byFredGifford(Editor),DovM.Gabbay(SeriesEditor),Paul
Thagard(SeriesEditor),JohnWoods
NorthHolland;1edition(September6,2011)

64

65