CHAPTER 3

AUTOMATION DEVICES

3.1 Introducton
Automation includes sensors,
switches, actuators, transducers and
controllers

Switches
Switches are frequently items in many
electrical actuation systems. Switches make or
break connections in an electrical circuit. This
may be to switch on electric motors, switch on
heating elements, actuate solenoid valves
controlling hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders,
control a set of sequential actions , etc.

MANUAL OPERATED SWITCHES

Slide Switch

Dual in-line Package (DIP) Switch

Mechanically Operated Switches

A mechanically operated switch is one that is

controlled automatically by factors such as
pressure, position and temperature. Examples
of mechanically operated switches are such as
limit switch, micro switch, temperature switch,
pressure switch and level switch

Sensors

Sensor is used for an element, which produces a

signal relating to the quality being measured.
Sensors are devices that are used to detect and
some time to measure. They are types of a
transducer.

Specification and Selection of a Sensor

Range and span

Range and linearity error in a temperature sensor

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 Repeatability
Sensors repeatability indicate the
range of output that the user can expect
when the sensor measures the same
input values several time On other
hand its mean the ability to give the
same output for repeated application of
the same input value.

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 Linearity
Linearity often quoted on spec sheets as
a +/- value for the sensors output signal.

Pressure

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 Accuracy
The extent which the value indicated by
a measurement system might be wrong.
Sensitivity
The relationship indicating how much
output to get per unit input.
Stability
The ability to give the same output
when used to measure a constant input
over a period of time.
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Proximity Sensor
Proximity sensors or switches are pilot
devices that detect the presence of object or
target without physical contact
Proximity sensors are used when:
required, as in counting or ejection control
applications.
The object being detected is too small, too
lightweight, or too soft to operate a
mechanical switch.
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 An object has to be sensed through nonmetallic barriers such as glass, plastic, and
paper cartons.
Hostile environments demand improved
sealing
properties,
preventing
proper
operation of mechanical switches.
Long life and reliable service are required.
A fast electronic control system requires a
bounce-free input signal.
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Type of Proximity sensors

Inductive proximity sensor
It is most widely used due to its small
size, robustness and low cost. An
inductive proximity sensor is a sensing
device that is actuated by a metal object.

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 When energy is supplied, the oscillator

operates to generate a high frequency field.
When a metal object enters the high
frequency field, eddy currents are induced in
the surface of the target. This results in a loss
of energy in the oscillator circuit;
consequently this causes a smaller amplitude
of oscillator. The detector circuit recognizes a
specific change in amplitude and generate a
signal that will turn the solid state output on or
off. When metal object leaves the sensing
area, the oscillator regenerates allowings the
sensor to return to its normal state.
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 Capacitive proximity sensor

It is a sensing device that is actuated by
conductive and non-conductive materials.

Capacitive proximity sensor

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 The operation of capacitive sensor is also

based on principle of an
oscillator. Inside
the sensor is a circuit that uses the supplied
DC power to generate AC, to measure the
current in the internal AC circuit, and to switch
the output circuit when the amount of AC
current changes. Capacitors can hold a
charge because, when one plate is charged
positively, negative charges are attracted into
the other plate, thus allowing even more
positive charges to be introduced into the first
plate. Unless both plates are present and
close to each other, it is very difficult to cause
either plate to take on very much charge.
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 Another type of a capacitive sensor is formed

by two metallic electrodes which are placed in
the feedback loop of a high frequency
oscillator that is inactive with no target
present. As the target approaches the face of
the sensor, it enters the electrostatic field that
is formed by the electrodes. This causes an
increase in the coupling capacitance and the
circuit begins to oscillate.

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Optical proximity sensor (Light

sensor/photoelectric sensor)

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 They are widely used in automated systems.

These sensors are commonly known as light
beam sensors of the thru-beam and retroreflective types. Thru-beam type is usually
used to signal the presence of an object that
block light. The retro-reflective type has the
transmitter and receiver in the same package.
It detect targets that reflect light back to the
sensor.

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Magnetic Switches
A magnetic switch (also called reed relay)
contact is composed of two flat contact
tabs that are hermetically sealed
(airtight) in a glass tube filled with
protective gas. As a permanent magnet
approaches, the ends of the overlapped
contact tabs attract one another come
into contact and demagnetizes and
return to it original position when the
permanent magnet is moved.

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Bar code technology

It is widely implemented in industry and
supermarket. Bar code system consists of three
basic elements; bar code symbols, scanner and
decoder. Bar code symbol composed of bars
and spaces of varying with, provides a means of
expression for human readable characters in a
form (bars and spaces) readable by machines.
Bar code symbols require a quite zone of no
mark in front of the black marks. The code itself
contains coded data between start and stop
patterns. Both the width of dark and light areas
are significant.

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 The name bar code reader or scanner designates

the optical reading instrument capable of emitting
and collecting a coherent (laser) or non coherent
(LED) red, intermediate or infrared beam. A bar
code reader is a computerized system and which
is build around retro-reflective optical sensors.
Bar code reader explore symbols (bar codes) by
shedding light across them and collecting the
reflected beam with an optical transducer (photo
detector) / converting a invisible electromagnetic
wave into an analogical electric signal. Some bar
code readers can sweep a target area hundred of
times a second.

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 A decoder is an electronic circuit needed to

transform this signal into digital form
(succession of ones and zeros in the form of
pulses) corresponds 100 percent to the
programmed bar code .
Benefits of the bar code system
The single item ID from primary production
sources to consumers, thus avoiding
alterations and errors.
Precise information on production times and
cycles, inspection, storing, transportation and
sales.
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 General statistical data.

Minimum data error owing to auto check system
and control characters.
Vertical oversize that allows a code to be
scanned even if, as a result of damage, only a
small part of its total height can be read.
Faster, more efficient reception, sale and
collection, particularly at supermarket checkout
counters.
No more price remarking or item by item
relabelling, especially in countries with high
inflation.
Prompt information on stock, sales and supplies.
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 Human error elimination in marking, interpreting,

invoice preparation and unknown loss.
Adaptable to most packing and printing system and
exciting packaging materials and techniques.
Easily adaptable and compatible with most
available computer brands and systems.
Human error elimination in marking, interpreting,
invoice preparation and unknown loss.
Adaptable to most packing and printing system
and exciting packaging materials and techniques.
Easily adaptable and compatible with most
available computer brands and systems.

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Temperature sensors
Thermocouple
A thermocouple consists essentially of a pair of
dissimilar conductors welded or fused together at
one end to form the "hot" or measuring junction,
with the free ends available for connection to the
"cold" or reference junction. A temperature
difference between the measuring and reference
junctions must exist for this device to function as
a thermocouple. When this occurs, a small dc
voltage is generated. Thermocouples, because of
their rugged-ness and wide temperature range,
are used in industry to monitor and control oven
and furnace temperatures.
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A reference junction is required for

measuring
temperature
with
thermocouples. The output voltage of a
thermocouple
is
approximately
proportional
to
the
temperature
difference in voltage between the
measuring (hot) junction and the
reference (cold) junction.

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Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

The basic concept underlying the measurement
of temperature by resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs) is that the electrical
resistance of metals varies proportionally with
temperature. This proportional variation is
precise and repeatable, therefore allowing the
consistent measurement of temperature
through electrical resistance detection.
Platinum is the material most often used in
RTDs because of its superiority regarding
temperature limit, linearity, stability, and
reproducibility.
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Thermistor
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that
usually has a negative temperature coefficient. As
the temperature increases, the thermistor's
resistance decreases, and vice versa. Thermistors
are very sensitive (as much as 5 percent resistance
change per C); therefore, they are capable of
detecting minute changes in temperature. Their
sensing area is small, and their low mass allows a
fairly fast response time of measurement. They are
available in a variety of sizes and styles. Because of
the large voltage output produced by a typical
thermistor bridge amplification is normally
unnecessary. The thermistor sensing unit is inserted
into the system to be monitored.
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Encoder sensors
An encoder is used to convert linear or rotary
into a digital signal. There are two types of
encoder sensors:
i.
Incremental encoder
The optical-type incremental is a rotary
encoder, creates a series of square waves as
its shaft is rotated. The encoder disk interrupts
the light as the encoder shaft is rotated to
produce the square wave output waveform. It
is very sensitive and accurate (normally from
100 to 4000 pulses per revolution).

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ii. The optical type absolute rotary

encoder
The optical-type absolute is also a rotary
encoder, operates in the same manner with the
exception that more traces have been applied to
the encoder disk. When scanned in a parallel
fashion, these traces provide angle information in
the form of
code. The number of traces
corresponds to he number of steps per rotation.
The traces are arranged in Gray code. The Gray
coding has the advantage over other coding in
that only one bit (trace) is changed per step. This
helps avoid misreading. The number of square
waves obtained from the output of the encoder
can be made to correspond to the mechanical
movement required.
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RPM sensors
A tachometer is used to detect the speed of a
motor. There are two types of tachometer:
frequency and magnitude.
A tachometer normally refer to a small permanent
magnet dc generator. When the generator is
rotated, it produces a dc
voltage directly
proportional to speed. Tachometers coupled to
motors are commonly used in motor speed
control to provide a feedback voltage to the
controller that is proportional to motor speed. The
rotating speed of a shaft often measured using a
magnetic (inductive) pickup sensor. A magnet is
attached to the shaft.
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A small coil of wire held near the

magnet receives a pulse each time the
magnet passes. By measuring the
frequency of pulses, the shaft speed
can be determined. The voltage output
of a typical pick up coil is quite small
and requires amplification.

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Transducer
A transducer is any device that converts
energy from one form to another.
Transducer can be divided into to: i/p
transducer and o/p transducer. For e.g.
electric i/p transducer convert non-electric
energy such as sound, light into electric
energy. Electric o/p transducer works in the
reverse order-convert electric energy to forms
of non-electric energy

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Displacement transducers
Potentiometers, also called variable resistors,
are making a comeback as position sensors. It
can be used as linear or as rotary position
sensors. The output is a voltage proportional to
the position of a wiper along a variable resistor.
They have a reputation for being too inaccurate
because of the effects of temperature changes,
wear, and resistance changes due to pollutants
between the wiper and the variable resistor. Its
making a comeback because developments in
materials, especially in conductive plastics, are
improving their performance.
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Linear variable differential transformer

(LVDT)

It is basically a transformer with a

movable core and two secondary
windings. LVDT sensor can be used to
control the water level in a tank .
especially in conductive plastics, are
improving their performance. The LVDT
is provided with AC at its central (input)
coil.

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Capacitive Position Sensors

Have been used as dial position sensors in
radios for years. (Their variable capacitance is
used in the radio frequency selection circuitry,
so perhaps calling them "sensors" in this
application isn't quite right.) A capacitor
increases in capacitance as the surface area
of the plates facing each other increases. If
one 180 degree set of plates is attached to a
rotating shaft, and another 180 degree set of
plates is held stationary, then capacitance
increases linearly with shaft rotation through
180 degrees.
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Capacitive sensors are used in a

slightly different way to detect the height
of fluids that have higher dielectric
constraints than air. If the fluid rises in
the capacitive height sensor, then more
surface area of the capacitor plates are
coupled by the fluid, and capacitance
rises proportionally with fluid height.

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Force and pressure transducer

Strain gauge
It is a sensor that measure deformation due to
pressure. When the strain gauge is stretched, the
conductor reduces its cross-sectional area and
thus can carry less current. The piezoelectric
strain gauge sensor includes a crystalline
material that develops a voltage across the
crystal when the crystal is deformed. A strain
wire gauge transducer converts a mechanical
strain into an electric signal. The force applied to
the gauge causes the gauge to bend. This
bending action also distorts the physical size of
the gauge, which, in turn, changes its resistance
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Flow transducers/Sensor
Pitot (pea-toe) type
Pressure upstream from a restricted orifice in
a pipe is always higher than pressure
downstream from that restricted. The greater
the flow rate, the greater the pressure
difference. If a differential pressure sensor
compares pressures before and after
restriction, then flow rate can be determined

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Turbine type

The blades of turbine flow meter are

often magnetized, so that a magnetic
sensor outside the pipe can detect the
rotation speed of the turbine. Although
the output rotation speed
of this
flowmeter is theoretically proportional to
the flow rate, several factors such
leaking, viscosity of fluid, etc can effect
the precision.
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Vortex shedding

A Vortex shedder obstruction creates

swirling areas of low pressure behind
and on side of the obstruction as fluid
flows past. The faster the fluid flow, the
faster this vortex
is created and
destroyed. A vibration sensor on the
obstruction measures the frequency at
which the obstruction vibrates as the
vortex location alternates from one side
to the other.
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Actuator
Actuation systems are the elements of
control systems which are responsible
for transforming the output of a
microprocessor or control system into a
controlling action on a machine or
device. E.g. we might have an electrical
output of the controller which has to be
transformed into a linear motion to move
a load.
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Comparison of actuating systems

Hydraulic
Advantages
-

Good for large robots and heavy payload

Highest power/weight ratio
Stiff system, high accuracy, better response
No reduction gear needed
Can work in wide range of speeds without
difficulty
- Can be left in position with out any damage

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Disadvantages
- May leak. Not fit for clean room applications
- Requires pump, reservoir, motor, hoses, etc.
- Can be expensive and noisy.
- Requires maintenance
- Viscosity of oil changes with temperature
- Very susceptible to dirt and other foreign
material in oil
- High torque, high pressure, large inertia on
the actuator
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Electrical
Advantages
- Good for all sizes of robots
- Better control, good for high precision
robots
- Higher compliance than hydraulics
- Reduction gears used re duce inertia
on the
motor
- Does not leak, good for clean room
- Reliable, low maintenance
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Disadvantages
- Can be spark, explosive environments
- Needs reduction gears,Low stiffness
- increased backlash, cost, weight, etc.
- Motor needs braking device when not
powered.

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Pneumatic
Advantages
- Many components are usually off-theshelf
- Reliable components
- No leaks or sparks
- Inexpensive and simple
- Low pressure compared hydraulics
- Good for on-off application and for pick
and place Compliant systems
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Disadvantages
- Noisy systems
- Require air pressure, filter. etc.
- Difficult to control their linear position
- Deform under load constantly
- Very low stiffness. Inaccurate response
- Lowest power to weight ratio

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Hydraulic power supply

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Pneumatic power supply

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Directional Control Valves

Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use directional
control valve to direct the flow of fluid through a
system. It is used to open/close , or on/off devices.
These valves are used to develop sequences
control systems. They can be activated to switch
the fluid flow direction of mechanical, electrical or
fluid pressure signals. Figure 4.3(a) shows a
typical directional control valve (spool valve). In (a)
the air supply is connected to port 1 and port 3 is
closed. This will make the device connected to
port2 is pressurized. In (b) the air supply is cut off
and port 2 is connected to port 3.

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A typical directional
control valve (spool
valve). In (a) the air supply
is connected to port 1 and
port 3 is closed. This will
make the device connected
to port2 is pressurized. In
(b) the air supply is cut off
and port 2 is connected to
port 3.

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Another
type
of
directional
control
valve, the poppet valve.
There is no connection
between port 1 to which
the system is connected.
When the button is
released the spring
forces the ball back up
against its seat and so
closes off the flow.
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(a) Flow path, (b) flow shut off, (c) initial

connections
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Valve actuation symbols

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Cylinder

a) A Double acting cylinder

b) Single acting cylinder
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 The hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder is an

example of a linear actuator. The principle and
form are the same for both hydraulic and
pneumatic with the difference of size and
pressures(hydraulic requires more pressure).
The cylinder consist of a cylindrical tube along
which a piston/ram can slide. Single acting
cylinder is used when the control pressure is
applied to just one side of the piston, a spring
often being used to provide the opposition to the
movement of the piston. When a current passes
through the solenoid, the valve switches position
and pressure is applied to move the piston
along the cylinder. As a consequence the spring
returns the piston back to initial position.
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Control of Single acting cylinder

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 Double acting cylinder is used when the

control pressures are applied to each
side of the piston. A difference in
pressure between the two sides then
results in motion of the piston, the
piston being able to move in either
direction along the cylinder as result of
high pressure signals.

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Control of Double acting cylinder

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Figure below shows how a 4/3 way

directional control valve controls a double
acting cylinder

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 Relay
is an electrically operated device that
mechanically switches electric circuits. It is an
important part of many control system because it
is useful for remote control and for controlling high
voltage and current devices with a low voltage and
current control signal. When current flows through
the electromagnet in an electromechanical control
relay, a magnetic field that attracts the iron arm of
the armature to the core of the magnet is set up.
As a result, the contacts on the armature and
relay frame are switched. Relay may have NO
contacts or NC contacts or combinations of both..
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An electromechanical control relay

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 Solenoid
is a device used to convert an electrical
signal or an electrical current into linear
mechanical motion. The solenoid is made
up of a coil with a movable iron core. When
the coil is energized, the core, or armature
as it is sometimes called, is pulled inside
the coil. The amount of pulling or pushing
force produced by the solenoid is
determined by the number of turns of
copper wire and the amount of current
flowing through the coil.
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 A solenoid valve
is a combination of two basic functional units. A
solenoid (electromagnet) with its core or plunger.
A valve body containing an orifice in which a
disc or plug is positioned to restrict or allow flow.
Flow through an orifice is off or allowed by the
movement of the core and depends on whether
the solenoid is energized or de-energized. When
the coil is energized, the core is drawn into the
solenoid coil to open the valve. The spring
returns the valve to its original closed position
when the current ceases. Solenoid valves are
available to control hydraulics (oil fluid),
pneumatics (air), or water flow.
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Solenoid Valve
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