Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lecture Outline
29-1
Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Human Development
Fertilization and Preembryonic Stage
Embryonic and Fetal Stages
The Neonate
Aging and Senescence
29-2
Human Development
miraculous aspect of human life is the
transformation of a one-celled fertilized egg
into and independent, fully developed
individual
embryology the study of prenatal
development
developmental biology a broader
science that embraces changes in form and
function from fertilized egg through old age
29-3
29-4
Sperm Migration
egg must be fertilized within 12 to 24 hours of
ovulation, if it is to survive
sperm must encounter the egg somewhere in the
distal one-third of the uterine tube
vast majority of sperm do not make it to egg
29-5
Sperm Migration
sperm move by lashing of tail as they crawl
along the female mucosa
may be assisted by female physiology
strands of cervical mucus that guide them
through the cervical canal
uterine contractions that suck semen from
vagina and spreads it throughout the uterus
chemical attractant molecules released by
egg may attract sperm from a short distance
29-6
Capacitation
spermatozoa reach uterine tube within 5 to 10
minutes of ejaculation, but cannot fertilize the egg for
10 hours
capacitation process that migrating sperm must undergo
to make it possible to penetrate an egg
plasma membrane of fresh sperm is toughened by cholesterol
prevents premature release of acrosomal enzymes while sperm is still in the
male which prevents enzymatic damage to sperm ducts
Fertilization
when sperm encounters an egg, it undergoes an acrosomal
reaction exocytosis of the acrosome, releasing the
enzymes needed to penetrate the egg
enzymes of many sperm are released to clear a path for the one that
will penetrate the egg
penetrates granulosa cells then zona pellucida
when a path has been cleared, a sperm binds to the zona pellucida
releases its enzymes and digests a path through the zona until it
contacts the egg itself
29-8
Fertilization
fertilization combines the haploid (n) set of sperm
chromosomes with the haploid set of egg chromosomes
producing a diploid (2n) set
polyspermy fertilization by two or more sperm
two mechanisms to prevention of polyspermy
fast block binding of the sperm to the egg opens Na+ channels in
egg membrane
inflow of Na+ depolarizes membrane and inhibits the attachment of any
more sperm
Fertilization
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Sperm
First polar body
Egg
Corona radiata
Zona pellucida
4
Rejected sperm
Fertilization membrane
Cortical reaction
Acrosomal reaction
Sperm nucleus
fertilizing egg
Nucleus
Acrosome
Fusion of egg
and sperm plasma
membranes
Zona pellucida
Figure 29.1
Extracellular space
Granulosa cells
Cortical granules
Egg membrane
29-10
Migration of Conceptus
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cleavage
Blastomeres
2-celled stage
(30 hours)
Second polar
body
Egg
pronucleus
Zygote
Morula
(72 hours)
Sperm
pronucleus
Zona pellucida
Blastocyst
Fertilization
(0 hours)
Ovary
Maturing
follicle
Sperm
cell
Corpus
luteum
Ovulation
Implanted
blastocyst
(6 days)
Secondary
oocyte
Figure 29.2
29-11
Meiosis II
the secondary oocyte begins meiosis II before
ovulation
completes it only if fertilized
through the formation of the second polar body, the
fertilized egg discards one chromatid from each
chromosome
29-12
29-13
embryonic stage
fetal stage
29-14
Preembryonic Stage
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cleavage
Blastomeres
Second polar
body
Egg
pronucleus
Sperm
pronucleus
Zygote
Zona pellucida
Morula
(72 hours)
Blastocyst
Fertilization
(0 hours)
Ovary
Maturing
follicle
Sperm
cell
Corpus
luteum
Ovulation
Implanted
blastocyst
(6 days)
Secondary
oocyte
Figure 29.2
29-15
Cleavage
cleavage - mitotic divisions that occur in the first 3
days while the conceptus migrates down the
uterine tube
first cleavage occurs within 30 hrs after fertilization
zygote splits into 2 daughter cells (blastomeres)
29-16
Cleavage
blastocyst a hollow sphere
trophoblast outer layer of squamous
cells
destined to form the placenta
play a role in nourishment of the embryo
Twins
dizygotic twins
about two-thirds of twins
two eggs are ovulated and two fertilized forming two
zygotes
no more or less genetically similar than any other
siblings
implant separately in the uterine wall and form its own
placenta
monozygotic twins
one egg is fertilized (one zygote) but embryoblast later
divides into two
genetically identical, of the same sex, and nearly
identical in appearance
29-18
Dizygotic Twins
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 29.3
29-19
Landrum B. Shettles, MD
Implantation of Blastocyst
blastocyst attaches to uterine wall 6 days after ovulation
usually on the fundus or the posterior wall of the uterus
29-20
Implantation of Blastocyst
syncytiotrophoblast grows into the uterus like little roots
digesting endometrial cells along the way
endometrium reacts to this injury by growing over the blastocyst and covering it
conceptus becomes completely buried in endometrial tissue
HCG levels rise in mothers blood until the end of the second month
trophoblast develops into a membrane called the chorion
takes over the role of the corpus luteum making HCG unnecessary
29-21
Implantation of Blastocyst
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Lumen of uterus
Blastocyst:
Blastocoel
Trophoblast
Embryonic hypoblast
Cytotrophoblast
Embryoblast
Syncytiotrophoblast
Endometrium:
Epithelium
Endometrial gland
(a) 67 days
(b) 8 days
29-22
Cytotrophoblast
Syncytiotrophoblast
Germ layers:
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Amnion
Amniotic cavity
Embryonic
stalk
Allantois
Yolk sac
Lacuna
Figure 29.4c
Extraembryonic
mesoderm
Chorionic villi
(c) 16 days
29-23
Ectopic Pregnancy
ectopic pregnancy - blastocyst implants somewhere
other than the uterus
1 out of 300 pregnancies
29-24
Embryogenesis
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
embryogenesis - arrangement of
blastomeres into three primary germ
layers in the embryoblast
Amnion
Primitive
streak
Primitive
groove
Epiblast
(soon to become
ectoderm)
Mesoderm
the
Endoderm
(replacing
hypoblast)
Hypoblast
(undergoing
replacement)
Figure 29.5
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cytotrophoblast
Syncytiotrophoblast
Germ layers:
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Amnion
Amniotic cavity
Embryonic
stalk
Allantois
Yolk sac
Lacuna
Extraembryonic
mesoderm
Chorionic villi
(c) 16 days
Figure 29.5
29-25
Embryogenesis
primitive streak thickened cell layer that forms along
the midline of the epiblast
primitive groove running down its middle
29-26
Embryogenesis
mesoderm a more loosely organized tissue which
differentiates into a loose fetal connective tissue
mesenchyme
gives rise to muscle, bone, and blood
composed of a loose network of wispy mesenchymal dells
embedded in a gelatinous ground substance
Embryonic Folding
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Longitudinal sections
Age
Amniotic
cavity
Amnion
Cross sections
Endoderm
Foregut
Ectoderm
Hindgut
Amniotic cavity
Amnion
Ectoderm
Heart
tube
Allantois
Yolk sac
Neural groove
Mesoderm
Yolk sac
Caudal
Cephalic
Neural tube
Primitive
gut
Coelom
(body cavity)
Liver bud
Primitive gut
Figure 29.6
Lung
bud
(c) 28 days
Allantois
Vitelline
duct
Yolk sac
Amnion
Neural tube
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Dorsal
mesentery
Primitive gut
Endoderm
Coelom
(body cavity)
29-28
Embryonic Stage
embryonic stage - begins when all 3 primary germ
layers present
usually 16 days after conception
29-30
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Age
appearance of somites
segmentation of the mesoderm
into blocks of tissue will give
rise to the vertebral column, trunk
muscles, and dermis of the skin
Amnion
Cross sections
Endoderm
Foregut
Ectoderm
Hindgut
Amniotic cavity
Amnion
Ectoderm
Longitudinal sections
Amniotic
cavity
Heart
tube
Allantois
Neural groove
Mesoderm
Yolk sac
Yolk sac
Caudal
Cephalic
Neural tube
Primitive
gut
Coelom
(body cavity)
Liver bud
Lung
bud
Primitive gut
Amnion
Neural tube
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
(c) 28 days
Allantois
Vitelline
duct
Yolk sac
Figure 29.6
Dorsal
mesentery
Primitive gut
Endoderm
Coelom
(body cavity)
29-31
Organogenesis
formation of organs from primary germ layers
at 8 weeks, all organs are present in 3 cm long fetus
heart is beating and muscles exhibit contracts
derivatives of ectoderm
epidermis, nervous system, lens and cornea, internal ear
derivatives of mesoderm
skeleton, muscle, cartilage, blood, lymphoid tissue,
gonads and ducts, kidneys and ureters
derivatives of endoderm
gut and respiratory epithelium and glands, bladder, and
urethra
29-32
Fetus
by the end of 8 weeks
all organ systems are present
individual is about 3 cm long
now considered a fetus
bones have begun to calcify
skeletal muscles exhibit spontaneous contractions
too weak to be felt by the mother
29-33
Embryonic Membranes
several accessory organs develop along side the embryo
placenta, umbilical cord, and four embryonic
membranes amnion, yolk sac, allantois, and chorion
amnion - transparent sac that develops from epiblast
grows to completely enclose the embryo and penetrated only by the
umbilical cord
fills with amniotic fluid
29-34
Embryonic Membranes
yolk sac arises from the hypoblast cells opposite the
amnion
small sac suspended from ventral side of embryo
contribute to formation GI tract, blood cells, and future egg or sperm
cells
29-35
Prenatal Nutrition
during gestation the conceptus is nourished in three
different, overlapping ways:
uterine milk, trophoblastic nutrition, and placental
nutrition
uterine milk glycogen-rich secretion of the uterine tubes
and endometrial glands
absorbs this fluid as it travels down the tube and lies free in the
uterine cavity before implantation
Prenatal Nutrition
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Placental nutrition
Trophoblastic
nutrition
Figure 29.8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
Placental phase
29-37
Placentation
placentation the development of the placenta
formation of placenta occurs from 11 days to 12 weeks
chorionic villi
extensions of syncytiotrophoblast into endometrium by
digestion and growth of roots of tissue
early chorionic villi
mesenchyme extends into chorionic villi to form
embryonic blood vessels
placental sinus
lacunae filled with maternal blood that merge and
surround villi
blood stimulates rapid growth of chorionic villi
29-38
Cytotrophoblast
Syncytiotrophoblast
Germ layers:
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Amnion
Amniotic cavity
Embryonic
stalk
Allantois
Yolk sac
Lacuna
Figure 29.4c
Extraembryonic
mesoderm
Chorionic villi
(c) 16 days
29-39
Maternal blood
in placental sinus
Uterus
Chorionic
villus
Developing
placenta
Umbilical
blood vessels
Yolk sac
Amnion
Chorion
Amniotic cavity
(a)
Figure 29.7a
29-40
Maternal Maternal
vein
artery
Myometrium
of uterus
Chorionic
villus
Placental
sinus
Maternal
blood
Umbilical cord
Umbilical arteries
Umbilical vein
(c)
Placenta
Yolk sac
Allantois
Umbilical cord
Amniotic fluid
in amniotic cavity
Amnion
Chorion
Lumen of
uterus
(b)
Embryonic Membranes
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Maternal blood
in placental sinus
Uterus
Chorionic
villus
Developing
placenta
Maternal Maternal
vein
artery
Myometrium
of uterus
Chorion
Umbilical
blood vessels
Chorionic
villus
Yolk sac
Maternal
Amnion
blood
Amniotic cavity
(a)
Umbilical cord
Umbilical arteries
Placental
sinus
Umbilical vein
(c)
Placenta
Yolk sac
Allantois
Umbilical cord
Amniotic fluid
in amniotic cavity
Amnion
Chorion
Lumen of
uterus
(b)
29-42
29-45
29-46
Embryonic Development
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Neural
plate
Chorion
Amnion
Umbilical
cord
Neural
groove
Somites
Amnion
(cut edge)
0.1 cm
2.0 cm
Primitive
streak
(d) 8 weeks
(a) 3 weeks
2.0 cm
Future lens
Pharyngeal
arches
Amnion
Heart
bulge
Arm bud
Uterus
(e) 12 weeks
Tail
0.3 cm
Ear
Leg bud
Eye
Somites
Digital rays
Liver bulge
(b) 4 weeks
Umbilical
cord
1.0 cm
Foot plate
5.0 cm
Tail
(f) 20 weeks
(c) 7 weeks
a: Landrum B. Shettles, MD; b-c: Anatomical Travelogue/Photo Researchers, Inc.
29-47
Ligamentum
arteriosum
Ductus
arteriosus
1
Lung
Foramen
ovale
Ductus
venosus
Lung
Fossa
ovalis
Ligamentum
venosum
5
Liver
Liver
Round
ligament
Umbilical
vein
Umbilicus
Kidney
4
Kidney
Umbilical
cord
Umbilical
arteries
4
Placenta
Urinary
bladder
Urinary bladder
High
Figure 29.10
29-51
29-52
Circulatory Adaptations
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
6
Ligamentum
venosum
5
Liver
Kidney
Abdominal aorta
Common iliac artery
Median
umbilical
ligaments
Urinary bladder
High
(b) Neonatal circulation
1
Lung
Fossa
ovalis
Round
ligament
Ligamentum
arteriosum
Figure 29.10b
29-53
immunological adaptation
cellular immunity appears in early fetal development but still weak
infant born with near adult levels of IgG from mother through
placenta
maternal IgG breaks down rapidly after birth
remain high enough for 6 months to protect against measles, diptheria, polio, and
most infectious diseases
29-54
fluid balance
kidneys not fully developed at birth
can not concentrate urine so have a high rate of water loss and
require more fluid intake, relative to body weight
29-55
Premature Infants
premature - infants born weighing under 5.5 lb
multiple difficulties in respiration, thermoregulation, excretion,
digestion, and liver function
29-56
Birth Defects
birth defects, or congenital anomalies the abnormal
structure or position of an organ at birth resulting in a
defect in prenatal development
teratology the study of birth defects
not all are noticeable at birth
some detected months to years later
29-57
Birth Defects
thalidomide babies born with unformed arms and legs,
and often with defects of the ears, heart, and intestines
alcohol causes more birth defects than any other drug
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) characterized by small head,
malformed facial features, cardiac and central nervous system
defects, stunted growth, and behavioral signs such as
hyperactivity, nervousness, and poor attention span
Birth Defects
microogranisms can cross the placenta and
cause serious congenital anomalies, stillbirth or
neonatal death
viral infections herpes simplex, rubella,
cytomegalovirus, and HIV
bacterial infections gonorrhea and syphilis,
Toxoplasma,
can produce blindness, hydrocephalus, cerebral palsy,
seizures, and profound physical and mental
retardation
29-59
Effects of Thalidomide
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 29.12
Thalidomide UK
29-60
29-61
XX
Parent cell with two X chromosomes
Disjunction
X
X
Each daughter cell
receives one
X chromosome
Sperm adds an
X or Y chromosome
XX
XY
XX zygote
X Y zygote
Normal female
Normal male
Figure 29.13a
(a) Normal disjunction of X chromosomes
29-62
Nondisjunction of X Chromosomes
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
XX
Parent cell with two X chromosomes
Nondisjunction
XX
One daughter cell
gets both
X chromosomes
XX
Sperm adds an
X chromosome
XXX
XXX zygote
X
XO zygote
Figure 29.13b
Triplo-X syndrome
Turner syndrome
29-63
29-64
Turner Syndrome
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Courtesy Mihaly Bartalos, from Bartalos 1967: Medical Cytogenetics, fig 10.2 pg. 154, Waverly,
a division of Williams & Wilkins
Figure 29.14
29-66
(a)
(b)
Incurved finger
Epicanthal
fold
Single palmar
(simian) crease
(d)
Short broad hands
(c)
a: Photo Researchers, Inc.; b: Courtesy Mihaly Bartalos, from Bartalos 1967: Medical Cytogenetics,
fig 10.2 pg. 154, Waverly, a division of Williams & Wilkins
29-67
Integumentary System
becomes noticeable in late 40s
intrinsic aging of skin normal changes with passage of
time
(old women): Stock Photo; (child): From The 1974 Science Year, 1973 Field Enterprises Educational
Corporation. By permission of World Book, Inc. www.worldbook.com
Figure 29.16
29-71
Skeletal System
osteopenia - loss of bone mass
osteoporosis loss is severe enough to compromise a
persons physical activity and health
after 30, osteoblasts less active than osteoclasts
after 40, women loose 8% of bone mass per decade, men 3%
brittle bones fracture and heal slowly due to decreased protein
synthesis
joint diseases
synovial fluid less abundant and articular cartilage thinner or absent
producing friction that causes pain
osteoarthritis is common cause of physical disability
Muscular System
muscular atrophy causes replacement of lean
body mass (muscle) with fat
muscle strength peaks at 20
by 80, we have half as much strength and endurance
fast-twitch fibers exhibit earliest and most severe atrophy
29-73
Nervous System
cerebral and neuronal atrophy
29-74
Sense Organs
vision
loss of flexibility of lenses (presbyopia)
cataracts or cloudiness of lenses
night vision is impaired due to fewer receptors, vitreous
body less transparent, pupil dilators atrophy, and
enzymatic reactions become slower
glaucoma risks increase
hearing
tympanic membrane and ossicle joints stiffen
hair cells and auditory nerve fibers die
death of receptor cells result in dizziness
29-75
Endocrine System
degenerates less than any other system
only reproductive, growth and thyroid hormones decline
steadily after adolescence
other hormones secreted at fairly stable rate
target cell sensitivity may decline
29-76
Circulatory System
anemia may result from nutrition, lack of exercise,
changes in erythropoiesis, lack of intrinsic factor
which reduces vitamin B12 absorption increasing risk
of pernicious anemia
coronary atherosclerosis leads to angina,
infarction, arrhythmia, and heart block
angina pectoris and myocardial infarction more common
heart walls thinner, stroke volume, and output declines
degeneration of nodes and conduction system
29-77
Immune System
amounts of lymphatic tissue and red bone
marrow decline
fewer hemopoietic stem cells, disease-fighting
leukocytes, and antigen-presenting cells
Respiratory System
declining pulmonary ventilation
costal cartilages less flexible
lungs have less elastic tissue and fewer alveoli
29-79
Urinary System
renal atrophy 20% to 40% smaller by age 90
loss of nephrons and atherosclerotic glomeruli
filtration rate decreases leaving little reserve capacity
can not clear drugs as rapidly
fluid balance
less responsive to antidiuretic hormone and sense of
thirst is sharply reduced
dehydration is common
29-80
Reproductive System
male
gradual decline in testosterone secretion, sperm count,
and libido
fertile into old age, but impotence may occur due to
atherosclerosis, hypertension, medication, or
psychological reasons
female
more abrupt, rapid changes due to menopause
ovarian follicles used up, gametogenesis ceases and
ovaries cease production of sex steroids
vaginal dryness, genital atrophy, and reduced libido
29-82
Mechanisms of Senescence
senescence may be intrinsic process governed by inevitable
or even programmed changes in cell function
senescence may be due to an extrinsic (environmental)
factors that progressively damage our cells over a lifetime
a hereditary component to senescence
cross-linking theory
one-fourth of the bodys protein is collagen
with age, collagen molecules become cross-linked making fibers less soluble and stiff
stiffness of the joints, lenses, and arteries
29-84
Mechanisms of Senescence
theories of senescence:
other protein abnormalities
increasingly abnormal structure in older tissues and cells
lie in changes in protein shape and the moieties that are attached
cells accumulate more abnormal proteins with age
autoimmune theory
altered macromolecules are recognized as foreign
stimulates lymphocytes to mount an immune response against the bodys own
tissues
autoimmune diseases become more common with old age
29-85
Progeria
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 29.17
Bettmann/Corbis
29-86
29-87
Death
life expectancy - average length of life in a given
population
average boy can expect to live to 75
average girl can expect to live to 81
29-88
29-89