Multivariable Chapter7

Multivariable Control
Systems
Ali Karimpour
Assistant Professor
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad
Chapter 7
Chapter 7
Multivariable Control System Design: Nyquist-Like Techniques
Topics to be covered include:

Sequential loop closing
The characteristic-locus method
Reversed-frame normalization
Nyquist-array methods
Compensator structure
The inverse Nyquist-array (INA) method
The direct Nyquist-array (DNA) method
Achieving diagonal dominance
Pseudo-diagonalization
Quantitative feedback theory
2
Ali Karimpour May 2010
Chapter 7

The simplest approach to multivariable design is to ignore its multivariable nature.
A SISO controller is designed for one pair of input and output variables.
When this design has been successfully completed another SISO controller is
designed for a second pair of variables and so on.
How input and output variables should be paired?

loop-assignment problem or input-output pairing
3
Chapter 7

Benefits:
The transfer function matrix of
such a controller is diagonal.
It also has the advantage that it
can be implemented by closing
one loop at a time.
Drawbacks
It allows only a very limited class of controllers to be designed, and the design must
proceed in a very ad hoc manner.
Design decisions made when closing the first one or two loops may have deleterious
effects on the behavior of the remaining loops.
The only means available for the reduction of interaction (if this is a requirement) is
to use high loop gains
Chapter 7

A more sophisticated version of sequential loop closing is called
sequential return-difference method
A cross-coupling stage of compensations should be introduced

This stage should consist of either a constant-gain matrix
or a sequence of elementary operations.
K a ( s)
1
U (s)
d (s)
5
Chapter 7

Example 7-1
1
G (s)
( s 1) 2
1 s
2s
1
s
3
1 s
If we try to design a SISO controller for either the first or second loop here, we have
difficulties, if the required bandwidth is close to unity, or greater, because the transfer
function seen for the design, namely the (1,1) or (2,2) element of G(s), has a zero at 1.
However, G(s) itself has a transmission zero at - 1 only, so there should be no inherent
difficulty of this kind.
If we choose
1 0
Ka
2
1
1
Q( s ) G ( s) K a
( s 1) 2
1
3s
s
1
s
3
1 s
We see that no right half-plane zero appears when a SISO compensator is being
6
designed for the first loop.
Chapter 7

Example 7-1 Continue
1
Q( s) G ( s) K a
( s 1) 2
1
3s
s
1
s
3
1 s
Once the first loop has been

closed by
k1 ( s )
The transfer function seen in
the second loop is
1
s
1
s
s
3
q 122 ( s )
h
(
s
)
(1 s ) 2 ( s 1) 2
( s 1) 2
where h( s )
k1 ( s )
1
2
1 s / s 1 k1 ( s )
3
7
Chapter 7

Example 7-1 Continue
1
s
1
s
s
3
q 122 ( s )
h
(
s
)
(1 s ) 2 ( s 1) 2
( s 1) 2
where h( s )
k1 ( s )
1
2
1 s / s 1 k1 ( s )
3
Now, if we assume high gain in the first loop
k1 ( s )
and hence
( s 1)
1
s
3
( s 1) 2
h( s )
1
s
3
q 122 ( s )
1
( s 1)(3s 1)
so that no right half-plane zero is seen when the compensator for the second loop
is designed.
8
Chapter 7

The main idea that of using a first stage of compensation to make subsequent
loop compensation easier
The main weakness of the method is that little help is available for choosing that
first stage of compensation.
The available analysis relies on the assumption that there are high gains in the loops
which have already been closed, and such an assumption can rarely be justified,
except at low frequencies.
One rather special case, in which the assumption of high gains is justified, arises when
different bandwidth is required for each loop, and all the bandwidths are well separated
from each other.
9
Chapter 7

Mayne (1979) suggests that, if the plant has a state-space realization (A, B, C), the
product CB being non-singular (and the matrix D being zero), then the first stage of
compensation can be chosen to be
K a CB
Since
CB
G (s)
s
as
so
I
G(s) K a
s
as
so that each loop looks like a first-order SISO system at high frequencies.
However, an alternative choice, such as
K a G 1 ( j b )
or
K a j b G 1 ( j b )
10
Chapter 7

Commutative compensators
G ( s ) K ( s ) K ( s )G ( s )
Approximate commutative compensators
G ( s ) K ( s ) K ( s )G ( s )
How this can be done.
Why it should be useful
Suppose we have a square transfer-function matrix G(s), with m input and outputs
G ( s ) W ( s ) ( s )W 1 ( s )
is spectral decomposition
W(s) is a matrix whose columns are the eigenvectors, or characteristic directions, of G(s)
( s ) diag 1 ( s ) , 2 ( s ) , ..... , m ( s )
where the i(s) are the eigenvalues, or characteristic functions, of G(s).
If the compensator is given the structure
11
Chapter 7

G ( s ) W ( s ) ( s)W 1 ( s )
is spectral decomposition
If the compensator is given the structure
K ( s ) W ( s ) M ( s )W 1 ( s )
where
M ( s ) diag 1 ( s ) , 2 ( s ) , ... , m ( s )
then the return ration (loop transfer function) is
G ( s ) K ( s ) W ( s ) ( s ) M ( s )W 1 ( s ) W ( s) N ( s )W 1 ( s )
where
N ( s) diag v1 ( s ) , v 2 ( s) , ..... , v m ( s )
v i ( s ) i ( s ) i ( s )
How this can be done.

12
Why it should be useful
Chapter 7

The strategy which suggests itself is to obtain graphical displays of the characteristic
loci of the plant,
i ( j ) : i 1, 2 , ..... , m
Then design a compensator
i ( j )
for each
i ( j )
using the well-established single-loop techniques.

One would then obtain the compensator as the series connection of three systems
corresponding to
W 1 ( s ) , M ( s ) and W(s)
A compensator having this structure is called a commutative compensator, since
G ( s ) K ( s ) W ( s ) ( s ) M ( s )W 1 ( s ) W ( s ) N ( s )W 1 ( s ) K ( s )G ( s )
Unfortunately, it is quite impractical to attempt to build a commutative compensator.
13
Chapter 7
Example 7-2 The transfer-function matrix
G ( s)
has characteristic functions
1
1 ( s ) , 2 ( s )
2s 3
2( s 1)( s 2)
The characteristic directions are given by
and so W(s) is
4s 8
W ( s)
16s
48s 33
16s
48s 33
w1i ( s )
w2 i ( s ) 1
4s 8
16s
1
s 1
2
s2
2
s 1
1
s 2
4s 8
16s
48s 33
48s 33
14
Chapter 7

A practical alternative is to give the compensator the structure
K ( s) W ( s) M ( s)W 1 ( s )
where
A( s ) W ( s )
K ( s ) A( s ) M ( s ) B( s )
B ( s ) W 1 ( s )
are chosen to be realizable, and such that

Whichever approximation technique is chosen, we obtain an
approximate commutative compensator
15
Chapter 7

A( s ) W ( s )
B( s ) W 1 ( s )
One way of choosing constant matrices A and B is as approximations to
W ( s0 ) and W 1 ( s0 )
at some particular point s0
A successful algorithm for computing constant real matrices for use as the matrices,
A and B is the ALIGN algorithm.
Use of the approximate commutative compensator, with constant matrices A and B,
clearly relies on the eigenvectors of the plant not changing too quickly with frequency.
If the eigenvectors do change too quickly, one can try to choose A and B so as to
approximate at several frequencies rather than one. .
This refinement of the ALIGN algorithm frequently gives no better results
The reason seems to be that the price paid in not obtaining a good approximation to
the eigenframe at any frequency often outweighs the advantage gained.16
Chapter 7

A( s ) W ( s )
B( s ) W 1 ( s )
If all the characteristic loci require shaping over approximately the same range of
frequencies, then the choice of the frequency at which the ALIGN algorithm should
be used does not present a major problem.
But it often happens that different loci require compensation at different frequencies.
One can then either choose one of these frequencies, and hope that approximate
compensation is achieved on all loci satisfactorily, or compensate each locus with a
separate approximate commutative compensator:
K ( s ) K 1 ( s ) K 2 ( s )...K m ( s )
K i ( s ) Ai M i ( s ) Bi
The second alternative leads to a very complicated compensator, and suffers from the
difficulty that each factor of the compensator interferes with all the others.17
Chapter 7

Design procedure
Manipulating the characteristic loci

Stable design by satisfying the generalized Nyquist stability theorem
Large magnitudes at low frequencies
Stay outside the
M 2
All the loci look satisfactory-when judged against classical SISO criteria.
Do one ensure satisfactory performance of the multivariable feedback system? NO.
m
Let G ( s) K ( s ) W ( s )diag vi ( s ) W ( s ) wi ( s )vi ( s )iT ( s )

1
i 1
m
1 1
1
S ( s ) W ( s )diag
W
(
s
)
w
(
s
)
iT ( s )
i
1 vi ( s )
i 1
1 vi ( s )
m
vi ( s ) 1
vi ( s ) T
T ( s ) W ( s )diag
W
(
s
)
w
(
s
)
i (s)
i
1
v
(
s
)
1
v
(
s
)
i 1
i
i
18
Chapter 7

Design procedure
m
vi ( s ) 1
vi ( s) T
T ( s ) W ( s )diag
W
(
s
)
w
(
s
)
i ( s)
i
1 vi ( s )
i 1
1 vi ( s )
19
Chapter 7

Design procedure
r (s)
1 ( s)r ( s )
w1 ( s )
r ( s)
..
2 ( s)r ( s)
...
w2 ( s )
..
r ( s)
m ( s )r ( s)
wm ( s)
y (s )
20
Chapter 7
Design procedure
The performance of a feedback system depends essentially on the singular values
(principal gains) of functions such as S(s) and T(s).
These transfer functions have eigenvalue functions
1
1 vi ( s )
vi ( s )
1 vi ( s )
We know that, for any matrix X,
( X ) ( X ) ( X )
If the characteristic loci of GK

have low magnitudes
The sensitivity will certainly be large,

in some signal directions
If some characteristic locus

penetrates the M 2 circle
At least one principal gain of T(s)

will exhibit a resonance peak, of
magnitude greater than 2
21
Chapter 7

Design procedure
If the eigenvectors are nearly
orthogonal to each other
Shaping vi ( s )
Magnitudes of the smallest and largest

eigenvalues are close to the smallest
and largest singular values
Good system performance
This situation happens if the return ratio has low skewness

Note that the discrepancies between characteristic loci and singular values (principal
gains) do not make the shaping of characteristic loci a fruitless activity.
On the contrary, manipulating the characteristic loci is often the most straightforward
and productive way of designing a multivariable feedback system, or at least of
initiating the design. Of course, the properties of the resulting design must be checked
by methods more revealing than examination of the characteristic loci.
22
Chapter 7

Design procedure
MIMO systems should exhibit little interaction.
So a change in one of the reference signals should cause only the corresponding
output to change, without excessive transients occurring on the other outputs.
Alternatively, the appearance of a sudden disturbance on one of the outputs should
not disturb the other outputs excessively.
If
vi ( s ) 1 , for each i
vi ( s )
1
1 vi ( s )
T ( s) I
High loop gain demonstrates that lack of interaction.
If
Both for physical reasons and because the

generalized Nyquist theorem needs to be satisfied
23
Chapter 7

Design procedure
If
vi ( s )
1
1 vi ( s )
T ( s) I
High loop gain demonstrates that lack of interaction.
If
Both for physical reasons and because the

generalized Nyquist theorem needs to be satisfied
Thus, at higher frequencies feedback cannot be relied upon to enforce low interaction.
The only thing that can be done is to insert a series compensator whose main purpose is
to obtain a decoupled (that is, diagonal) return ratio of -G(s)K(s) at (some of) these
frequencies.
One way of attempting to decouple the return ratio at one or several frequencies is to
attempt to invert G(s) at these frequencies by ALIGN algorithm. .
24
Chapter 7
Design procedure
v i ( j b )
1 v i ( j b )
Let
1
2
for each i
K h G 1 ( jb )
eigenvalues G ( jb ) K h
It may be advantageous to adjust the

signs of the columns of Kh at this
stage.
In which case one of the characteristic loci will be very far from -1
In such a case changing the sign of the corresponding column of Kh may bring this
characteristic locus into a region in which subsequent compensation becomes easier.
25
Chapter 7
Design procedure
It can be shown that if the compensator has the structure
K (s)
and
G ( s )C ( s )
k
C (s)
s
is proper
then it is always possible to find a C(s) such that the closed-loop system is stable for
a range of gains
0 k k*
If all the eigenvalues of G(0)C(0) have positive real parts.
Furthermore, it is impossible to find such a C(s) if any eigenvalue of G(0)C(0) has a
negative real part.
This strongly suggests that the signs of the columns of Kh should be adjusted to bring
all the eigenvalues of G(0)Kh into the right half-plane, if possible.
26
Chapter 7

Design procedure of characteristic-locus method
1- Compute a real
K h G 1 ( j b )
2- Design an approximate commutative controller Km(s) at some frequency

for the compensated plant G(s)Kh, such that
m b
K m ( j ) I as
3- If the low-frequency behavior is unsatisfactory (typically because there are excessive

steady-state errors), design an approximate commutative controller Kl(s) at low
frequency, for the compensated plant G(s)KhKm(s), such that
K l ( j ) I as
(the red blocks are some attempt to ensure that the decoupling effected by Kh is not
disturbed too much).
4- Realize the complete compensator as
K ( s) K h K m (s) K l (s)
high, medium and low frequency
27
Chapter 7

Step 2, the medium-frequency compensation, is concerned with shaping the
characteristic loci in the vicinity of -1
This is where phase lead or lag, or more complicated shaping, is applied to the loci.
To reduce the interaction between Step 1 and step 2 it is often necessary to obtain
Kh at a frequency rather higher than s.
The characteristic-locus design technique is best suited to plants which need a similar
bandwidth for each loop with reasonable control signals.
If a plant needs a different bandwidth for different loops, then it may be possible to
perform two (or more) characteristic-locus designs:
The first one would usually be for the fast loops, and the second for the slower loops.
In other words, a kind of sequential loop-closing approach may be appropriate, the
28
characteristic locus method being used inside the sequential loop-closing Ali
approach.
Karimpour May 2010
Chapter 7

Design example
Consider the aircraft model AIRC described in the following state-space model.
x Ax Bu
y Cx Du
0
1.1320
0
1.0000
0
0
0
0
0 0.0538 0.1712
0.1200 1.0000
0
0
.
0705
0
,B
A 0
0
0
1.0000
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
0485
0
0
.
8556
1
.
0130
4
.
4190
0
1
.
6650
0 0.2909
1.5750
0
1.0532 0.6859
0
0.0732
1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
C 0 1 0 0 0 , D 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0
the model has three inputs, three outputs and five states.
29
Chapter 7

Design example
THE SPECIFICATION
We shall attempt to achieve a bandwidth of about l0 rad/sec for each loop.
Little interaction between outputs.
Good damping of step responses and zero steady-state error in the face of step
demands or disturbances.
We assume a one-degree-of-freedom control structure.
30
Chapter 7

Design example
PROPERTIES OF THE PLANT
The time responses of the plant to unit step signals on inputs 1 and 2 exhibit very
severe interaction between outputs.
The poles of the plant (eigenvalues of A) are
0 , 0.78 1.03 j , 0.0176 0.1826 j

so the system is stable (but not asymptotically stable).
Thus this plant has no finite zeros, and we do not expect any limitations on
performance to be imposed by zeros. since
the number of finite zeros of the plant can be at most
n 2m rank (CB ) 5 2.3 1 0
31
Chapter 7
M 2
Characteristic loci of plant, with logarithmic calibration of the axes

We conclude that if negative feedback were applied around the plant as it stands,
the closed loop would be unstable. (One RHP pole)
32
Chapter 7

Design example
ALIGNMEIVT AT 10 rad/sec
71.535 0.0036 3.669
K h align(G ( j10)) 8.5375 9.9984 0.5376
189.44 0.0065 69.378
0.983 0.068 j 0.0001 0.003 j 0.0005 0.009 j
G ( j10) K h 0.063 0.0004 j 0.005 1.010 j 0.0008 0.0003 j
0.009 0.100 j 0.0000 0.0005 j 0.9962 0.086 j
From input 1 to output 2 and 3, and that these interactions have been reduced to 10% or
less (at that frequency).
3.669
71.535 0.0036
K h 8.5375 9.9984 0.5376
189.44 0.0065 69.378
33
Chapter 7

Design example
1
3
( s e j : , 0 1)
2
2
Characteristic loci of GKh , with logarithmic calibration

If we closed the feedback loops at this stage the system would be stable. 34
Chapter 7

Design example
APPROXIMATE COMMUTATIVE COMPENSATOR
120
As might be expected from
100
G ( j10) K h
however, two of the loci pass

extremely close to -1
80
Gain (dB)
60
G ( j10) K h WW 1
40
20
0.3483 0.2049 0.0015

A align(W 1 ) 0.0124 0.0076
0.9999
0.8829
0.9526
0.0009
0
-20
-40
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
Phase (deg)
-60
-40
-20
Characteristic loci of GKh , on Nichols chart
0.0031 0.3728
1.8165
B align(W ) 1.7310 0.0026 0.6633

0.0391
1.0001 0.0024
35
Chapter 7

In this case it is the (1,1) and (2,2) elements of that require compensation.
0.0933s 0.2175
0.0933s 1
M (s)
0.0933s 0.2175
0
0.0933s 1
K m ( s ) AM ( s ) B
To evaluate the interactions at this frequency it is appropriate to examine

0.6811 0.0023 0.0071
abs G ( j10) K h K m ( j10) 0.0265 0.9999 0.0025
0.0763 0.0012 0.6731
This shows that decoupling has not been destroyed at l0 rad/sec.
36
Chapter 7

LOW FREQUENCY PROBLEM

Characteristic loci of GKhKm , on Nichols chart
37
Chapter 7

LOW FREQUENCY COMPENSATION
(G (0) K h K m (0)) 10
( X ) ( X ) ( X )
Which will certainly not achieve the objective of zero steady-state error in the face of
step disturbances.
K l ( s)
1 sT
I
sT
38
Chapter 7

150
Gain (dB)
100
50
Characteristic loci of GKhKm

on Nichols chart
-50
-240
-220
-200
-180
-160
-140
Phase (deg)
-120
-100
-80
-60
Characteristic loci of GKhKmKl

on Nichols chart
39
Chapter 7

Design example
150
Gain (dB)
100
50
-50 -2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency ( rad/sec )
10
10
Largest and smallest open-loop singular values (principal gains).
40
Chapter 7

Design example
5
0
-5
Bandwidth is ok
Gain (dB)
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45 -1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
Largest and smallest closed-loop singular values (principal gains).

41
Chapter 7

Design example
Step Response
1.2
1
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0.5
1.5
2.5
Time (sec)
Closed-loop step responses to step
demand on output 1 (solid curves),
42
output 2 (dashed curves) and output 3 (dotted curves).
Chapter 7

Design example
REALIZATION OF THE COMPENSATOR
The controller can be realized as a five-state linear system (two states for the
phase-lead transfer functions in Km, and three for the integrators in Kl).
0
7.266
0.0126 1.491
0.0126 1.491
10.72
7.266
6.924 0.0106 2.653

0
10
.
72
6
.
924
0
.
0106
2
.
653
AK
0
0
0
0
0 , BK 0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.5
59.03 33.4 70.45 0.0129 3.091
70.45 0.0129 3.091
C K 7.489 2.752 8.369
9.996
0.4372 , DK 8.369
9.996
0.4372
266.8
183.9 0.1204 65.52
57.2
183.9 0.1204 65.52
43
Chapter 7
The characteristic-locus design technique is based on
G ( s ) W ( s) ( s )W 1 ( s )
Let us now focus instead on the singular-value decomposition

G ( s ) Y ( s ) ( s )U H ( s )
The singular values (principal gains) of G(s) are real valued but we can associate them
with phase information in the following way.
i ( s ) arg min U H ( s )Y ( s ) diag exp j i
i
Let
s diag exp j i s
m G s U H s Y s s
44
Chapter 7
i ( s ) arg min U H ( s )Y ( s ) diag exp j i
s diag exp j i s
m G s U H s Y s s
If
m G ( s ) 0
In the sense that
U ( s ) and Y ( s ) are aligned.
y i s u i s exp j i s
We shall say that G(s) is aligned if m(G(s))=0.

If we now define
s s s
Z s Y s H s
G ( s ) Y ( s ) ( s )U H ( s ) Y ( s ) H ( s )U H ( s )
G s Z s ( s )U H s
s diag 1 s ,..., m s
This is called the quasi-Nyquist decomposition.
45
Chapter 7
G s Z s ( s )U H s
This is called the quasi-Nyquist decomposition.
The loci of i j are called quasi-Nyquist loci, and it should be noted that
i j i ( j )
Now, suppose that the compensator K(s) has the structure
K s U s M s Z H s
M s diag 1 s ,..., m s
G s K s Z s s M s Z H s Z s N s Z H s Y s N s Y H s
N s diag v1 s ,..., v m s
i s i s i s
46
Chapter 7
In this case we see that the quasi-Nyquist loci are precisely the characteristic loci, and
that their magnitudes are the singular values (principal gains) of both return ratios.
We therefore approach more nearly the classical situation of being able to predict
stability, performance and robustness from the same set of loci.
A compensator with this structure is called a reversed-frame normalizing (RFN)
compensator.
Of course, such a compensator is no more realizable than an exact commutative
controller, but, as might be expected, one can obtain useful results by settling for
an approximate RFN controller.
Approximate RFN controller?

47
Chapter 7
Hung and MacFarlane (1982) have developed the above theory and its applications in
great detail, and outlined an optimization-based technique for computing approximate
RFN controllers.
K s arg min Q s G s K s
K s
Hung and MacFarlane performed least-squares optimization, and specified as the

set of transfer functions having a matrix-fraction description with a particular canonical
form (Hermite form) and McMillan degree.
Clearly many alternatives to these particular choices are possible.
One could also attempt approximate RFN at one specific frequency, just as we did
with the approximate commutative compensator.
48
Chapter 7
K s U 0 diag 1 s ,..., m s Y H 0
0.942 0.342
0.342 0.942
Q(0) Y (0)(0)U H (0)
5 0 0.766 0.643
0 1 0.643 0.766
49
Chapter 7
0.942 0.342
0
.
342
0
.
942
Q (0) Y (0)(0)U H (0)
A compensator of the form
sk
K ( s ) U (0) s
0
5 0 0.766 0.643
0 1 0.643 0.766
H
Y
(0)
s 5k
would have the desired effect since, at low frequencies, we would have
k
5 0 j
Q( j ) K ( j ) Y (0)

0
0
1
0
5k
j
Y H (0)
50
Chapter 7
Nyquist-array methods ( Compensator structure )
We shall again assume that the plant's transfer function is square.
Suppose that a compensator is rational, invertible, and has all its poles and zeros in the
left half-plane (including the origin).
Theorem
Let K(s) be square, rational and invertible, and have all its poles and zeros in the open
left half-plane. Then
K ( s ) K a K b ( s ) K c ( s ) and K ( s ) K c ( s ) K b ( s ) K a
K a and K a
are permutation matrices, in other words, reorder the outputs or inputs,
K b ( s ) and K b ( s )
are products of elementary matrices
K c ( s ) and K c ( s )
are diagonal matrices, with rational, non-zero, and with poles and
zeros in the open left half-plane only.
51
Chapter 7
This theorem implies that compensator design can be split into two stages.
In the first stage K a and K b ( s ) are used to make the return ratio diagonally dominant.
The second stage begins when dominance has been achieved and consists of
designing a set of separate SISO compensators one for each loop.
At this stage no attention is paid to the remaining interactions in the system,
Except that Gershgorin bands of the return ratio replace SISO Nyquist loci.
52
Chapter 7
Design can be pursued using either
Direct Nyquist arrays (DNA)

Q0 ( s ) G ( s ) K a K b ( s ) K c ( s )
Since Kc(s) post-multiplies the other transfer functions, and is diagonal, hence
column dominance of the G(s)KaKb(s) is not destroyed by Kc(s).
Therefore, when working with DNA it is usual to try to achieve column dominance.
Inverse Nyquist arrays (INA)

1
Q01 ( s ) K c1 ( s ) K b1 ( s ) K a G 1 ( s )
1
Since K c ( s) pre-multiplies the other transfer functions, and is diagonal,

1
hence row dominance of the K b1 ( s) K a1G 1 ( s) is not destroyed by K c ( s) .
53
Therefore, when working with INA it is usual to try to achieve row dominance.
Chapter 7
The inverse Nyquist-array (INA) method
Q( s ) G ( s ) K a K b ( s ) K d ( s )
K c ( s) K d ( s) F
T ( s ) I Q( s) F Q( s ) F H ( s) F
1
H ( s ) H 1 ( s )
Q0 ( s ) Q( s) F
H ( s) I Q( s) F Q( s)
1
(I)
Q ( s ) Q 1 ( s )
H ( s) Q ( s ) F
The simplicity of this relationship, as compared (I), underlies the use of INA
There is the Ostrowski bands, which allows the designer to take into account the
effects of interactions between loops.
The motivation for using inverse rather than direct arrays is that, in
principle at least, they allow the closed-loop behavior to be determined
more precisely from open-loop information.
54
Chapter 7
The direct Nyquist-array (DNA) method
The DNA has several advantages.
1- The designed compensator does not need to be inverted, and one consequence of this
is that any structure imposed by the designer, such as setting certain elements to zero,
is retained.
It also gives the designer more freedom in the choice of compensator, since its inverse
does not need to be realizable
2- The plant need not be square, since it need not have an inverse.
3- The inverse compensator designed by the INA method has right half-plane zeros,
particularly if it is designed semi-automatically by one of the methods described in
the next section.
However, there is no tool, such as the Ostrowski bands, which allows the designer
to take into account the effects of interactions between loops.
55
Chapter 7
Achieving diagonal dominance
Cut and try
It is based on some straightforward transformation.
Perron-Frobenius theory
Perron-Frobenius theory allows us to check whether a plant can be
made diagonally dominant by input and output scaling
Pseudo-diagonalization
A way of automatically generating compensators with a more general
structure.
56
Chapter 7
Achieving diagonal dominance ( Cut and try )
It is sometimes possible to examine the display of a Nyquist array and observe that
some straightforward transformation will achieve diagonal dominance.
Let
G ( s)
Its inverse is
s
3s 2
s2
3s 2
s 1
3s 2
s
3s 2
s 1
s
s2
G ( s )
This is clearly neither row dominant nor column dominant anywhere on the Nyquist
contour.
0 1
K a
1 0
s 1
s
0 1 s
s2
K a G ( s )

s
s
s 1
1 0 s 2
This is clearly row dominant and column dominant anywhere on the Nyquist contour.
57
Chapter 7
0 1
K a
1 0
s 1
s
0 1 s
s2
K a G ( s )

s
s
s 1
1 0 s 2
So that the compensated plant is represented by

0 1
Ka
1 0
s 1
G ( s ) K a 3s 2
s
3s 2
s
3s 2
s2
3s 2
Physically, this corresponds to nothing more than a re-ordering of the inputs (or a reassignment of inputs to outputs.
In this artificial example both the direct and the inverse array have been made equally
dominant, and the compensation required in each case is the same.
This is not usually true. It is quite possible for a particular compensator to make the
direct array dominant, but not the inverse array, and vice versa.
58
Chapter 7
The elementary matrices are supposed to represent simple transformations devised
by the designer.
1 2s
K b ( s)
1
0
In practice, it is rarely possible to make much progress by relying on being able to find
such transformations by ad hoc means.
An alternative strategy is to try to diagonalize a system at one frequency, and hope
that the effect will be sufficiently beneficial over a wide range of frequencies.
If the system has no poles at the origin, then K=G-1(s) is a realizable (because constant)
compensator.
Fortunately, we already have an algorithm (ALIGN algorithm) for performing the
required approximation on other frequencies.
59
Chapter 7
A plant has the inverse transfer function
s2 s 2
s 1
G (s)
5s 1
It is not diagonally dominant at low frequencies, since

The compensator
gives
K b G (0)
10s 3
s 2 s 1
s 2
2 3
G (0)
1 0.5
0.25 1.5
0.5
1
K b G (0) I
which is obviously diagonally dominant, and it gives column, but not row, dominance
at high frequencies, since
29
K b G ( s ) 4
s as
18

4
4
60
Chapter 7
Achieving diagonal dominance ( Perron-Frobenius theory )
Perron-Frobenius theory allows us to check whether a plant can be made diagonally
dominant by input and output scaling.
Theorem (Mees, 1981):
If G is square and primitive, then there exist a diagonal matrix X such that
~
G XGX 1
is diagonally dominate, if and only if

1
p GGdiag
2
(I)
If (I) satisfied then X which achieve diagonal dominance is

X diag x1 , x2 ,... , xn
Where p Perron-Frobenius eigenvalue and (x1, x2, ,xn)T is left Perron-Frobenius

1
eigenvector of GGdiag .
61
Chapter 7
Output scaling is physically impossible, since the meaningful plant outputs
(which are variables such as velocity, or thickness of steel strip) cannot be affected by
mathematical operations.
But we can use
But we must be wary of falling into the trap of believing that this return ratio tells us
anything about interaction at the plant output.
The output variables may be interacting with each other to a considerable extent, and
this interaction may be being hidden by the measurement scaling S.
62
Chapter 7
Fortunately, the Perron-Frobenius theory gives useful results, even if only precompensation (input scaling) is allowed.
Theorem :
If G is square and primitive, then there exist a diagonal matrix K(s) such that
~
G G (s) K (s)
is diagonally row dominate, if and only if

1
p abs Gdiag
G 2
(I)
If (I) satisfied then K(s) which achieve diagonal dominance is

K ( s ) diag x1 ( s ) , x2 ( s ) ,... , xn ( s )
Where p Perron-Frobenius eigenvalue and (x1(s), x2(s), ,xn(s))T is right Perron1

G .
Frobenius eigenvector of abs Gdiag
63
Chapter 7
Everything else remains the same, except that if a dynamic compensator is used then
the elements of compensator must be chosen to have realizable inverses.
A drawback of using diagonal compensators
Row dominance when using the DNA method
Column dominance when using the INA method
This is exactly the opposite of what we would like, since further diagonal compensation,
64
for the purpose of loop shaping, may destroy the dominance which has been
achieved.
Ali Karimpour
May 2010
Chapter 7
Example 7-5 Consider the transfer function
G ( s)
s4
( s 1)( s 5)
s 1
s 2 10 s 100
4
The Perron-Frobenius eigenvalue of
3.5
is:
3
2.5
Gain (dB)
1
abs G ( j )G diag
( j )
Its value is smaller than 4 dB ( i.e. p<2 )
1.5
at all frequencies, so it is possible to obtain
column dominance by using a diagonal

compensator.
1
5s 1
2
2s 1
0.5
0 -2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
65
10
Chapter 7
The second element of the Perron-Frobenius left eigenvector, when the first element
is fixed at 1 is:
0.438s 4.898
k 2 ( s)
s 0.31
30
25
This matches the variation of the

eigenvector very well.
20
Gain (dB)
15
The inverse compensator
10
K ( s ) diag 1, k2 ( s )
5
0
Leads to column dominant.
-5
-10 -2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
66
Chapter 7
20
20
10
10
Im
Im
Nvquist array of
-10
-10
-10
0
Re
10
-20
-20
20
20
20
10
10
Im
Im
-20
-20
-10
-20
-20
K G
-10
0
Re
10
20
-10
0
Re
10
20
-10
-10
0
Re
10
20
-20
-20
67
Chapter 7
Achieving diagonal dominance ( Pseudo-diagonalization )
This can be done by choosing some measure of diagonal dominance, some compensator
structure, and then optimizing the measure of dominance over this structure.
We shall use the term pseudo-diagonalization for any such scheme, although the
term is often reserved for the particular scheme proposed by Hawkins (1972).
Hawkins assumed that inverse arrays are to be used, but his method can be applied
equally well to direct arrays.
If we have a plant G(s) and a constant compensator K, with Q(s)=G(s)K, then individual
elements of Q are given by
jth row of K
qij ( j ) g iT ( j )k j
ith row of G
Hawkins proposed to minimize
J j pk
k 1
subject to the constraint
q
i j
ij
( j k ) p k
k 1
kj 1
g
i j
T
i
( j k ) k j
68
Chapter 7
Hawkins proposed to minimize
J j pk
k 1
q
i j
ij
( j k ) p k
k 1
subject to the constraint
g
i j
T
i
( j k ) k j
kj 1
q jj ( j k )
Hawkins method may not prevent
from being made small, as well as the
off-diagonal elements, so that diagonal dominance may not be obtained.

Suppose, however
Jj
p q
k
k 1
i j
p
k 1
ij
( j k )
q jj ( j k )
Jj
pk
i j
g iT ( j k )k j
T
p
g
k j ( j k ) k j
The solution is given by the multi frequency ALIGN algorithm. (Maciejowski (1989)).
69
Chapter 7
Ford and Daly (1979) have extended this approach to dynamic compensators:
K ( s ) k1 ( s),..., k j ( s ),..., k m ( s )
k0 j
k j ( s ) k 0 j ... k j s
i ( j )
g i ( j )
jg i ( j )
j g i ( j )
ijth element of G(s)K(s) is :
Jj
iT ( j k ) j
i j
pk Tj ( j k ) j
k
qij ( j ) iT ( j ) j
2
Vector
k
j
Vector (kth column of G)
pk
.
.
.
70
Chapter 7
A realizable compensator is therefore obtained by dividing Kj(s) by any polynomial

of degree (or greater).
Pseudo-diagonalization can be applied to either direct or inverse Nyquist arrays.
But a practical difficulty arises if a dynamic compensator is found for an inverse array:
its inverse needs to be realizable.
Pseudo-diagonalization have described in the context of Nyquist array methods,
it can clearly be applied whenever approximate inverses of frequency responses are
required.
In particular, it can be viewed as an extension of the ALIGN algorithm, and can
therefore be applied in the context of the characteristic-locus method.
71
Chapter 7
Design example
Consider the aircraft model AIRC described in the following state-space model.
x Ax Bu
y Cx Du
0
1.1320
0
1.0000
0
0
0
0
0 0.0538 0.1712
0.1200 1.0000
0
0
.
0705
0
,B
A 0
0
0
1.0000
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
0485
0
0
.
8556
1
.
0130
4
.
4190
0
1
.
6650
0 0.2909
1.5750
0
1.0532 0.6859
0
0.0732
1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
C 0 1 0 0 0 , D 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0
the model has three inputs, three outputs and five states.
72
Chapter 7
Design example
THE SPECIFICATION
We shall attempt to achieve a bandwidth of about l0 rad/sec for each loop.
Little interaction between outputs.
Good damping of step responses and zero steady-state error in the face of step
demands or disturbances.
We assume a one-degree-of-freedom control structure.
73
Chapter 7
Design example
PROPERTIES OF THE PLANT
The time responses of the plant to unit step signals on inputs 1 and 2 exhibit very
severe interaction between outputs.
The poles of the plant (eigenvalues of A) are
0 , 0.78 1.03 j , 0.0176 0.1826 j

so the system is stable (but not asymptotically stable).
Thus this plant has no finite zeros, and we do not expect any limitations on
performance to be imposed by zeros. since
the number of finite zeros of the plant can be at most
n 2m rank (CB ) 5 2.3 1 0
74
Chapter 7
Design example Obtaining column dominance
column dominance measure
i j
ij
( j )
g jj ( j )
150
column 1
G a in ( d B )
100
od
go
ba
d
50
-50
-100 -3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
Column dominances of the plant: column 1 (solid curve), column 2 (dashed curve)
and column 3 (dotted curve).
75
Chapter 7
We use pseudo-diagonalization (the algorithm of Ford and Daly (1979)) to obtain

column dominance, and apply it to one column at a time.
For this purpose, and in the rest of this design example, all frequency responses are
evaluated at a set of 50 frequency points, equally spaced on a logarithmic scale
between 0.001 and 100 rad/sec, except for a greater density of points in the region
of 0.18 rad/sec .
Applying pseudo-diagonahzation to the first column and optimizing over constant
compensator elements only, with uniform weighting on all frequencies, was not
successful.
Diagonal dominance was improved at low frequencies, where it was not needed, but
remained almost unchanged at high frequencies.
Frequencies above 0.1rad/sec were therefore weighted 10 times as much as lower
frequencies, but dominance was still not achieved above l rad/sec.
76
Chapter 7
This produced virtually perfect diagonal dominance, with a dominance measure less
than 10-6 at all frequencies.
1.52 10 3 s 9.78 10 4
k1 ( s ) 1.83 10 4 s 3.11 10 5
4.05 10 3 s 1.31 10 3
The lower degree of dominance may lead a simpler compensator structure. Only one
element of the column may need to be dynamic, for example.
For the second column, it was again necessary to optimize over a first order dynamic
structure,
Again, almost perfect dominance was obtained everywhere.
k 2 ( s)
0 s 1.22 10 2
5.74 10 2 s 4.50 10 3
0s 3.40 10 2
77
Chapter 7
The third column proved to be the most difficult to compensate.
Optimizing over a first-order structure with high weighting on low frequencies lead to:
78
Reducing the weighting on the low frequencies gave no benefit at higher frequencies.
Chapter 7
So optimization over a second-order structure was attempted, with uniform weighting

at all frequencies.
2
k 3 ( s ) k 03 k13 s k 23 s
This achieved dominance, except

in a narrow range of frequencies
near of frequencies near 0.2 rad/s.
The weighting on frequencies
between 0.1 and 1 rad/sec was
therefore increased to 10 times
as much as on other frequencies.
79
Chapter 7
The design obtained for the third column of the compensator is
4.21 10 2 s 2 9.78 10 2 s 1.14 10 1
k 3 ( s) 5.07 10 3 s 2 2.58 10 2 s 3.34 10 2

2.86 10 1 s 2 3.08 10 2 s 1.52 10 1
20
K b ( s ) k1 ( s ), k 2 ( s ), k 3 ( s )
0
-20
Gain (dB)
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140 -3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
80
10
Chapter 7
Design example Loop compensation
The first two columns are so dominant that the Gershgorin circles, superimposed on the
(1,1) and (2,2) loci, cannot be distinguished from the loci themselves, and the
Compensation of the first two loops is no different from compensation of a SISO system.
80
60
40
3980 0
Gain (dB)
20
K c (s )
-20
-40
0
0
?
0
0
?
-60
-80
-100 -3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
Response of (1, l) element with and without compensation.
81
Chapter 7
The frequency response of the (2,2) element, shown as a Nyquist plot in Figure, is
essentially constant at -25dB (=0.0562) at all frequencies.
3980
K c ( s)
Response of (2,2) element before compensation.
174
s
0
82
Chapter 7
The response of the (3,3) element is shown as a Nyquist plot with its Gershgorin band
(computed column-wise), and its magnitude is shown in Bode form in Figures
-7
-8
Gain (dB)
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
-14 -3
10
Response of (3, 3) element before compensation.
-2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
Gain of (3, 3) element before compensation.

83
Chapter 7
Suitable compensation of this element is obtained by first changing its sign, so that the
locus starts and ends on the positive real axis, and then inserting an integrator with
enough gain to add about l0 dB at l0rad/sec.
80
3980
K c (s)
174
60
40
31.6
s
Gain (dB)
20
-20
-40 -3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
Gain of (3, 3) element after compensation.
84
Chapter 7
For this element the thickness of the Gershgorin band is significant, so we should check
that the band does not overlap 1 in order to be sure that our inference of closed-loop
stability is correct.
Response of (3,3) element after compensation,

with Gershgorin band, on a Nichols chart. 85
Chapter 7
The compensation is not yet finished, because the product Kb(s)Kc(s) is not realizable:
each element in the first and third columns has one more zero than poles.
REATTZATTON OF THE COMPENSATOR
86
Chapter 7
Design example Analysis of the design
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
M=3 dB-circle
Im
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
-5
-4.5
-4
-3.5
-3
-2.5
Re
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
Characteristic loci, with 3 dB M-circle.

87
Chapter 7
5
0
-5
Gain (dB)
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40 -3
10
-2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
Largest and smallest closed-loop singular values (principal gains).
88
Chapter 7
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
0.5
1.5
2.5
Time (sec)
Closed-loop step responses to step demand on output 1 (solidcurves),

output 2 (dashed curves) and output 3 (dash-dotted curves). 89
Chapter 7
Impulse Response
0.5
0.4
Amplitude
0.3
0.2
0.1
-0.1
-0.2
10
Time (sec)
Response to impulse disturbance on plant input 1.
90
Chapter 7
References
Skogestad Sigurd and Postlethwaite Ian. (2005) Multivariable

Feedback Control: England, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Maciejowski J.M. (1989). Multivariable Feedback Design: AdisonWesley.
Mayne D.Q.(1973). Sequential design of linear multivariable systems:

Proceeding of the Institute of Electrical Engineers.l26, 568-572.
Hung y.S. and MacFarlane A.G.J. (1982). Multivariable Feedback: A

Quasi-classical Approach, Lecture Notes in Control and Information
Sciences, Vol.40. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
91

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Multivariable Control

Multivariable Control System Design: Nyquist-Like Techniques

Topics to be covered include:

Sequential loop closing

How input and output variables should be paired?

Sequential loop closing

Ali Karimpour May 2010

Sequential loop closing

A cross-coupling stage of compensations should be introduced

Sequential loop closing

Sequential loop closing

Once the first loop has been

Sequential loop closing

Now, if we assume high gain in the first loop

Sequential loop closing

Sequential loop closing

The characteristic-locus method

Why it should be useful

The characteristic-locus method

If the compensator is given the structure

then the return ration (loop transfer function) is

How this can be done.

The characteristic-locus method

Then design a compensator

using the well-established single-loop techniques.

The characteristic-locus method

Example 7-2 The transfer-function matrix

has characteristic functions

The characteristic-locus method

are chosen to be realizable, and such that

The characteristic-locus method

One way of choosing constant matrices A and B is as approximations to

at some particular point s0

The characteristic-locus method

The characteristic-locus method

Manipulating the characteristic loci

Let G ( s) K ( s ) W ( s )diag vi ( s ) W ( s ) wi ( s )vi ( s )iT ( s )

The characteristic-locus method

The characteristic-locus method

The characteristic-locus method

We know that, for any matrix X,

If the characteristic loci of GK

The sensitivity will certainly be large,

If some characteristic locus

At least one principal gain of T(s)

The characteristic-locus method

Magnitudes of the smallest and largest

This situation happens if the return ratio has low skewness

The characteristic-locus method

High loop gain demonstrates that lack of interaction.

Both for physical reasons and because the

The characteristic-locus method

High loop gain demonstrates that lack of interaction.

Both for physical reasons and because the

Ali Karimpour May 2010

The characteristic-locus method

It may be advantageous to adjust the

The characteristic-locus method

The characteristic-locus method

2- Design an approximate commutative controller Km(s) at some frequency

3- If the low-frequency behavior is unsatisfactory (typically because there are excessive

4- Realize the complete compensator as

high, medium and low frequency

The characteristic-locus method