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Module No.1
12
Introduction:
Introduction to CAD/CAED/CAE, Elements of CAD, Essential Requirements of CAD,
Concepts of Integrated CAD/CAM, Necessity & Its Importance, Engineering Applications
Computer Graphics-I
CAD/CAM Systems, Graphics Input Devices-Cursor Control Devices, Digitizers,
Keyboard Terminals, Image Scanner, Speech Control Devices and Touch, Panels,
Graphics Display Devices-Cathode Ray Tube, Random & Raster Scan Display, Color
CRT Monitors, Direct View Storage Tubes, Flat Panel Display, Hard Copy Printers and
Plotters.
Computer Graphics-II
Graphics Standards, Graphics Software, Software Configuration, Graphics Functions,
Output Primitives- Bresenhams Line Drawing Algorithm and Bresenhams Circle
Generating Algorithm.
Geometric Transformations:
World/Device Coordinate Representation, Windowing and Clipping, 2 D Geometric
Transformations- Translation, Scaling, Shearing, Rotation & Reflection Matrix
Representation,
Composite
Transformation,
3DTransformations,
Multiple
Transformation.
2
Module No.II
12
Curves:
Curves Representation, Properties of Curve Design and
Representation,
Interpolation
Vs
Approximation,
Parametric
Representation of Analytic Curves, Parametric Continuity Conditions,
Parametric Representation of Synthetic Curves-Hermite Cubic SplinesBlending Function Formulation and Its Properties, Bezier CurvesBlending Function Formulation and Its Properties, Composite Bezier
Curves, B-Spline Curves and Its Properties, Periodic and Non-Periodic
B-Spline Curves.
3D Graphics:
Polygon Surfaces-Polygon Mesh Representations, Quadric and
Superquadric Surfaces and Blobby Objects; Solid Modeling-Solid
Entities, Fundamentals of Solid Modeling-Set Theory, Regularized Set
Operations; Half Spaces, Boundary Representation, Constructive Solid
Geometry, Sweep Representation, Color Models. Application
Commands for AutoCAD & Pro-E Software
3
Module
No.III
Numerical Methods
With
Programming in 14
C/C+
+:
Introduction,
Errors
in
Numbers,
Binary
Representation of Numbers, Root Finding- Bisection
Method, Newton Raphson Method, Curve FittingLeast Square Method, Numerical DifferentiationNewtons Interpolation, Numerical IntegrationTrapezoidal and Simpson Method
Finite Element Method:
Introduction, Principles of Finite Elements Modeling,
Stiffness Matrix/Displacement Matrix, Stiffness
Matrix for Spring System, Bar & Beam Elements,
Bar Elements in 2D Space (Truss Element).
Continuum Problems: Classification of Differential
Equations, Variational Formulation Approach, Ritz
Method, Generalized Definition of An Element,4
Element Equations From Variations.
Module No.1
Introduction:
Introduction to CAD/CAED/CAE, Elements of CAD, Essential Requirements of CAD,
Concepts of Integrated CAD/CAM, Necessity & Its Importance, Engineering
Applications
Computer Graphics-I
CAD/CAM Systems, Graphics Input Devices-Cursor Control Devices, Digitizers,
Keyboard Terminals, Image Scanner, Speech Control Devices and Touch, Panels,
Graphics Display Devices-Cathode Ray Tube, Random & Raster Scan Display,
Color CRT Monitors, Direct View Storage Tubes, Flat Panel Display, Hard Copy
Printers and Plotters.
Computer Graphics-II
Graphics Standards, Graphics Software, Software Configuration, Graphics
Functions, Output Primitives- Bresenhams Line Drawing Algorithm and
Bresenhams Circle Generating Algorithm.
Geometric Transformations:
World/Device Coordinate Representation, Windowing and Clipping, 2 D Geometric
Transformations- Translation, Scaling, Shearing, Rotation & Reflection Matrix
Representation,
Composite
Transformation,
3DTransformations,
Multiple
Transformation.
What is CAD
CAD= C +
A +
D
C:- Computer
A:- Aided (HELP)
D:- Design
Now we leave first two terms .
And make a discussion on the Design.
What is design?
Or
What is design Process?
BUT>>>>>>>>>
Before starting on the details discussion ONE Question:-
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What is Design?
Design, usually considered in the context of applied arts,
engineering, architecture, and other creative endeavors, is
used both as a noun and a verb.
As a verb, "to design" refers to the process of originating and
developing a plan for a product, structure, system, or
component.
As a noun, "a design" is used for both the final (solution) plan
(e.g. proposal, drawing, model, description) or the result of
implementing that plan (e.g. object produced, result of the
process). More recently, processes (in general) have also been
treated as products of design, giving new meaning to the term
"process design
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DESIGN PROCESS
The Design process
deals with the conversion
of ideas in to reality.
OR
IT is the form of human
activity which aims at
fulfilling human needs
OR
The design process is the
process of produce the
prototype, which is used
as the sample for
reproducing the
particular, goods or
service as many time to
satisfy consumers needs
RECOGNITION
OF NEED
DEFINITION OF
PROBLEM
SYNTHASIS
ANALYSIS AND
OPTIMIZATION
EVALUATION
PRESENTATION
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1.
2.
1.
Design by craft evolution:The designing of Bullock cart , rowing boat, razor etc
are some product produce by craft evolution process.
Features of craft evolution:The craft man doesnt prepare the dimensioned
drawing of their products.
They can not offer proper justification for the design.
The product design was very time consuming.
The change in product design is very slow or nearly
negligible.
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Design by drawing:To over come the limitation of design by craft, a new method
of design is developed this method is called Design by
Drawing.
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22
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RECOGNITION
OF NEED
DEFINITION OF
PROBLEM
CAD ELEMENT\TOOLS
SYNTHASIS
GEO.
MODELLING
ANALYSIS AND
OPTIMIZATION
EVALUATION
ENGG.
ANALYSIS
DESIGN
REVIEW AND
EVALUATION
PRESENTATION
AUTOMAT
EDRAFTIN
G
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PRODUCT CYCLE
All product cycle starts from the customers and markets and involves three steps. --Product specification
Design and optimization engineering
Drafting
Product
Concept
Design
Engineering
Drafting
Costumer
And Market
New
Equipment
and Tooling
Process
Planning
Quality
control
Production
Product
Schedules
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CAD
Product
Concept
Costumer
And
Market
Quality
control
CAQc
CADD
Design
Engineerin
g
New
Equipment
and
Tooling
Production
Computer
control, robets,
machine OR
CAM
Drafting
Process
Planning
Product
Schedules
CAPP
Product cycle
with
implementation
of CAD
Computerized
Scheduling,
Mrp, Shop floor
Control
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OVERVIEW OF CAD
What is CAD?
CAD if often defined in a variety of ways and includes a large
range of activities. Very broadly it can be said to be the
integration of computer science (or software) techniques in
engineering design.
OR
CAD is a creation and development of prototype on a
computer to assist the engineer in design process.
OR
CAD can be defined as the use of computer system to assist
in the creation, modification analysis or optimization of design.
OR
CAD also describe as the automation of the design process.
CAD plays the role in the area such as design, analysis,
production, planning, documentation, tool fabrication, quality
control and testing.
Cad system is also useful in improving the performance and
productivity.
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A typical
CAD process
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
MODELING
Modelling typically includes a set of activities like
Defining objects
Defining relation between objects
Defining properties of objects
Defining the orientations of the objects in suitable coordinate systems
6. Modification of existing definition (editing)
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The figure below explains what a typical CAD model would need
to define, what kind of entities need to be defined and what
relationships exist between them.
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DISPLAY / VISUALIZATION
Displaying the model requires the following:
Mapping objects onto screen coordinates: Models are typically made in a model
coordinate system. this could be the world coordinate system, or a coordinate system
local to the object. these coordinate systems are typically three dimensional in
nature. To display the object on a 2D screen, the object coordinates need to be
mapped on to the 2D coordinate system of the screen. This requires two steps:
Viewing transformations: The coordinates of the object are transformed in a
manner as if one is looking at the object through the screen. This coordinate
system is referred to as the viewing coordinate system.
Projections: The object in the viewing coordinate system is then projected onto
the two dimensional plane of the screen.
Surface display or shading / rendering: In displaying the objects on the screen one
often likes to get a shaded display of the object and get a good feel of the three
dimensional shape of the object. This requires special techniques to render the
surface based on its shape, lighting conditions and its texture.
Hidden line removal when multiple surfaces are displayed: In order to get a proper
feel of the three dimensional shape of an object, one often desires that the lines /
surfaces which are not visible should not be displayed. this is referred to as hidden
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line / surface removal
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Modeling of solids
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CAE
(COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING)
CAE DEFINED AS A PRODUCT DESIGN DEVELOPMENT PHILOSOPY THAT BRINGS TOGETHER ALL THE
ENGINEERING ACTIVITIES.
OR
CAE IS A COMBINATION OF TECHIQUES IN WHICH MAN AND MACHINE ARE BLENDED IN TO A PROBLEM
SOLVING TEAM WITH THE BEST CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH.
CAD
CAD
(DRAFTING)
CAE
CAM
CAPM
(COMPUTER
ADIED
PRODUCTION
MANAGEMENT)
1.Material
inventory control
2.Plant layout
3.Pay Roll
4.Production
Planning and
Control
5.Group tech.
6.Computer aided
scheduling
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DATA
MANAGEMENT
COM. AIDED
DRAFTING
QUALITY
ACCURANCE
CAD
CAE
CAPM
CAM
COMPUTER
SIMULATION
CAE ACTIVITIES
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CIMS
COMPUTER INTREGATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
CIMS IS AN INTREGATION OF CAD\CAM SYSTEM THAT CONTROL ALL ACTIVITIES FROM
PLANNING, DESIGN OF PRODUCT TO ITS MANUFACTURING AND SHIPPING.
Mechanical
design
Product
specification
Mechanical
drafting
CIMS
Manufacturing
Process design
and control
Product design
and planning
Business
Management
Post production
management
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Elements of CAD
Computer aided design consists of 3 levels i.e. Drafting, Modeling, Analysis and
blended in to two main factors.
1.Human factor
2.Machine factor
These factors working together to active the optimum design.
Level I
Level II
Drafting & Documentation
Geometric Modeling
Level III
Analysis & Testing
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CAD SYSTEM
SYSTEM
FACTOR
HUMAN
FACTOR
DATABASE
GEOMETRIC
MODELING
HARDWARE
ENGINEERING
ANALYSIS
SOFTWARE
DESIGN
REVIEW &
EVALUATION
AUTOMATED
DRAFTING
Element of CAD
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Human Factor
Human factor is the key of the success of CAD system. This concerns the training of designer or
the engineer, with out when the CAD system become redundant.
The trained designer may be activity involved in CAD process due to following factors.
Geometric modeling
Engineering/ Computer Aided analysis
Design review and evaluation
Automated drafting
1:-Geometric
Modeling
In computer aided design geometric modeling is concerned with computer compatible
mathematical description of the geometry of an object. The mathematical description
allows the images of the object to be displayed and manipulated on a graphic terminal
through signals from the CPU of the CAD system.
In geometric modeling the designer constructs the image of the object. On the CRT
screen of the interactive computer graphics system by in putting three type of
command
The first type of command generates basic geometric elements. Such as points lines
and circle.
The second type of command is meant to accomplish translation scaling, rotation or
other transformations of the elements.
The third type of command joins the various elements to give the desired object.
During the above process the computer converts the commands into a mathematical
model stores it in the computer data files and displays it as an image on the CRT
screen.
.
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3-d wire
frame
model
2.5-d wire
frame
model
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2:-Engineering Analysis In the formulation of any design project, some sort of analysis is
required the analysis may be stress-strain calculations heat transfer computation or the use of
differential equation to describe the dynamic behaviour of the system being designed.
The computer can be used to aid in this analysis work.
Trunkey CAD/CAM system can be integrated to engineering analysis software which can be called
to operate on the current design model. The two most powerful analysis features of CAD system is
4:-Automated Drafting
Automated drafting involves the creation of hard copy engineering drawings directly from
CAD database. Some times automation of drafting process represented the principal
justification for investing the CAD station.
Computer aided drafting station is known as the design work station. The CAD work
station is the system interface with the outside world. The work of CAD work station
Interface with the central processing unit of the computer.
Generate the steady graphic image for the user.
Provide digital description of the graphic image.
Translate computer command into operating function.
Be user friendly.
Some times automated drafting also used with features of automatic dimensioning
generation of cross hatched area, scaling of drawing and capability to developed
sectional view and enlarged views of particular par details.
2:System Factor :
The other component or element is system factor. It contains two main sub components
a:-Hardware b:-Software.
A:-Hardware The hardware stands for physical component hardware list.
The CAD workstation
Display devices
Interaction devices
Output device
B:-Software It is second subsystem which is a set of instructions, procedures and
rules that direct the operation of the computer. Now present time many softwares are
available.
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The complete CAD system consist of CPU, Hard disc, key boards,
digitizers, tabulate monitor, the plotter, scanner etc.
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Computer Graphics I
Computer systems
Graphics input devices- cursor control
devices, Digitizers Scanners, speech
oriented devices and touch panels
Graphics display devices CRT, color
CRT monitors, DVST, Flat- panel display
Graphics output Devices.
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Control
unit
ALU
MEMORY
Computer
Peripheral device
(printer)
Outside world
Mass Memory
(Tape, disk
etc)
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CRT
Color CRT monitors
DVST
Flat- panel display
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Introduction
Normally the display o/p devices divided in to two category:1. Display devices for display the images on computer monitor.
2. Plotting, printing devices for the hard copy generation.
In today world most of the display devices follow the RASTER Scan technique and
most of the raster devices works on the DIGITAL FRAME BUFFER
DIGITAL FRAME BUFFER:- This frame buffer store a matrix of Pixel intensity
value, so this is called Memory Bank.
This memory bank change according to the requirement.(up to a certain limit.)
In a simple monochrome display the buffer contains the one memory bit for each
pixel in the each display device, thus if there are 1280x1024 pixels on the
display device, the buffer contains the same number of memory bits in a single
bit plane.
The memory bits have binary value of either 0 or 1 .
Zero value for unlighted pixel.
One value for lighted pixel.
If color and shade are required then additional bit are allocated on each pixel.
Total number of color available is 2n.
Total number of color are limited by Speed and bandwidth of display system. 61
Normally 4096 color are available in common cad system.
Frame
Buffers
A frame buffer may be thought of as computer memory
organized as a two-dimensional array with each (x,y)
addressable location corresponding to one pixel.
Bit Planes or Bit Depth is the number of bits corresponding to
each pixel.
A typical frame buffer resolution might be
640 x 480 x 8
1280 x 1024 x 8
1280 x 1024 x 24
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Monochrome Display
(Bit-map Display)
1 bit
2 levels
Electron
Gun
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0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
66
Red
Green
Blue
68
69
RED
max
GREEN
255
0
0
0
1
0
67
67 100110100001
Pixel in
bit map
at x', y'
0
0
BLUE
1
1
0
x
Bit map
Pixel displayed
at x', y'
max
Look-up table
Display
Video look-up table organization: each table entry is a 12 bit per entry.
A pixel with value 67 is displayed on the screen with the red electron gun
at 9/15 (binary 1001) of maximum, green at 10/15, and the blue is 1/15.
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Performance measurements
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following
parameters:
Luminance is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2
also called a Nit).
active (black) to inactive (white) and back to active (black) again,
measured in milliseconds. Lower numbers mean faster transitions
and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.
Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color
(white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable
of producing.
Power consumption is measured in watts.
Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the
monitor can be viewed, without excessive degradation to the image.
It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically.
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CRT
CATHODE RAY TUBE
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Vacuum tube
Elector gun
Control grid
Cathode
Beam Focusing unit
Deflection system:- a. Vertical system
b. Horizontal system
7.CRT screen
Fig. illustrates the basic operation of a CRT. A beam of electrons (cathode rays), emitted
by an electron gun, passes through focusing and deflection systems that direct the
beam towards specified position on the phosphor-coated screen.
The phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by the electron
beam. Because the light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly, some method is
needed for maintaining the screen picture.
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This causes electrons to be? boiled off? the hot cathode surface. In
the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, negatively charged electrons are
then accelerated toward the phosphor coating by a high positive
voltage.
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Spots of light are produced on the screen by the transfer of the CRT
beam energy to the phosphor.
When the electrons in the beam collide wit the phosphor coating, they
are stopped and there are stopped and their kinetic energy is
absorbed by the phosphor.
Part of the beam energy is converted by friction into heat energy, and
the remainder causes electron in the phosphor atoms to move up to
higher quantum-energy levels. After a short time, the? Excited?
Phosphor
What we see on the screen is the combined effect of all the electrons
light emissions: a glowing spot that quickly fades after all the excited
phosphor electrons have returned to their ground energy level.
RASTER-SCAN DISPLAYS
As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity
is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots.
This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the
screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the
refresh buffer and? Painted? On the screen one row (scan line)
at a time.
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At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of
the screen to begin displaying the next scan line.
The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing each scan line, is called
the horizontal retrace of the electron beam.
Random scan
Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for
this reason are also referred to as vector displays (or strokewriting or calligraphic displays).
The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed
by a random-scan system in any specified order.
Sometimes the refresh display file is called the display list,
display program, or simply the refresh buffer.
To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the
set of commands in the display file, drawing each component
line in turn.
After all line- drawing commands have been processed, the
system cycles back to the first line command in the list.
Random-scan displays are designed to draw al the component
lines of a picture 30 to 60times each second.
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Video
Controller
Cycles through the frame buffer, one scan line at a time. Contents of the memory
are used the control the CRT's beam intensity or color.
X address
M
e
m
o
r
y
Linear
address
Raster scan
generator
Y address
Data
Set or increment
Pixel
value(s)
Set or decrement
Horizontal
and vertical
deflection
signals
Intensity
or color
84
85
1. Persistence
2. Resolution
3. Addressability
4. Aspect ratio
86
Intensity
distribution
89
90
91
Hor. molecule
Color filter
Twisted LCM
backlight
s
cr
e
e
n
voltage
Ver .molecule
Horizontal polarizing
94
filter
95
97
98
99
99
100
101
Cons
Expensive
Large pixels (~1 mm versus ~0.2 mm)
Phosphors gradually deplete
Less bright than CRTs, using more power
102
103
Input device
Key board
Mouse
Light pen
Joystick
Trackball
Digitizer
105
Input
Devices
Locator Devices:
Keyboard devices:
to input a character string
Alphanumeric keyboard (coded - get single ASCII character,
unencoded - get state of all keys - more flexible)
Valuator Devices:
to input a single value in the space of real numbers
Rotary dials (Bounded or Unbounded), Linear sliders
Choice Devices:
to select from a set of possible actions or choices
Function keys
106
Key board
107
Mouse
108
Light pen
109
JOY Stick
110
Track ball
111
113
114
Fig. 1-15 Mapping between a tablet graphics area and a display screen
OutPut devices
Monitor
Printer
Plotter
115
Monitor
116
Printer
117
Plotter
118
Computer Graphics-II
Graphics Standards, Graphics Software, Software
Configuration,
Graphics
Functions,
Output
Primitives- Bresenhams Line Drawing Algorithm
and Bresenhams Circle Generating Algorithm.
119
Computer Graphics-II
Graphics standards
Graphic World With out Graphic standards: Old or existing software to run on new system are prohibitive.
To run old one user pay some additional cost .
The procedure of running of old software on new one is time
consuming.
Application
Program
Graphics
System
I/O device
Application
Program
Kernal
core
system
Device
handler
driver
Hardware
Hardware
Independent dependen
t
With Graphics
Standards
I/O device
121
123
PHIGS
(Programmers Hierarchical Interactive graphics
system)
124
125
IGES
(Initial graphics Exchange
Specification)
It is capable to exchange the database
among the CAD/CAM system.
It is work at the level of object database
and application data structure.
127
NAPLPS
(North American Presentation-level protocol
syntax)
128
Graphics Function
Graphics software provides user with several function for
creating and playing the images. These routine can be
deals with output ,input attributes, transformations,
viewing and general control.
Such routines are called Graphics Functions.
Different Graphics Function:1. Output primitives and their attributes.
2. Geometric Transformation.
3. Viewing Transformation.
4. Input function.
5. Control Operation Function.
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Their Attributes
Polyline
Polymarker
Text
File Area
130
Output Primitives
A drawing and solid models generates in a CAD package
by using certain basic graphical entities such as line,
circle, polygon, ellipse, etc. These graphical entities are
called Output Primitives.
These out put primitives can be drawn by given set of
command in CAD package.
E.G: For line the input required are co-ordinates of
end point position.
For Circle the input required center and radius
of the circle.
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Output Primitives
Line 1
Line 2
Line 5
Arc
1
Polygon 1
Circle 1
Arc
2
Line 3
Line 4
Algorithm
Line
Circle
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Compute:-dx= X2-X1
Compute:- dY= Y2-Y1
Compute Slope:- dY/dX
Compute b=Y1-mX1
Set(X,Y) equal to lower left hand end point and Xend equal to
largest value of X.
IF dX<0,X=X2, Y=Y2 and Xend=X1
dX>0, X=X1, Y=Y1 and Xend=X2
6.
Test to determine whether the entire line has been drawn.
If X=Xend, Stop.
7.
Plot the point at the Current (X,Y) Coordinates.
8.
Increments X=X+1.
9.
Compute the nearest value of Y,Y=mX+b.
10. Go to step 6.
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y1
x1
x2
135
Slope of line,
m=y/x, y=mx or x=y/m.
Case 1:1. If slope is less than one.
2. Positive
3. Start point of the line is:a) at the left:Then set the increment in x coordinate to unity.
Let a point (xk, Yk ) on the line the next point will be:xk+1 = xk + 1
Yk+1= Yk +m
b) at the right:xk+1 = xk - 1
Yk+1= Yk -m
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