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Evolutionoflife&biogeochemistry
Biotamediatethecyclesofmanyelementsthatcyclebetween
variousreservoirswithdifferentresidencetimes
Biologytransferenergythroughfoodchains/webs
Geochemistryleadtosteadystatesystemsfarfrom
chemicalequilibrium
RecordsonEarthatmcomposition,sediments
Diversityofmicrobialmetabolisms
Higherorganismsmostlyaerobic
Presentdaycyclescandeviatefromrockrecord
Complexprocessescycleelements
amongdifferentreservoirs
involvesbiology
hasgeochemicalconsequences
Differentcommunitiesstoreandcycle
materialandenergydifferently
diversitydifferences
differentbiogeochemicalresults
differentstorageofbiomass
TwoCriticalStepsintheOriginand
EvolutionofLife
Organiccatalysisandselfreplication
CatalyticRNA?
Photosynthesis
Amechanismforcapturingenergyandconverting
itintofood
Structureofthebiosphere
Hierarchy
Speciesreproductivegroup
Populationmembersofasinglespeciesthat
liveinagivenarea
Communityassemblageofinteractingspecies
inagivenarea
Biomearegionwithacharacteristicplant
community(e.g.rainforest,desert)
Ecosystemacommunityofanimals,plants,
microbes,etc,togetherwiththephysical
environmentthatsupportsit
Structureofthebiosphere
Ecosystem
Assemblageoforganismsthatinteractwitheachotherandthe
environment
Somecanbedefinedbytheirenvironment(rainforest,desert)
Interactionsbetweenorganismandenvironment
Daisyworldexample
Alterationofenvironmentscanimpactecosystems
ENSOeventsfoodwebeffects
Cessationofupwellingfoodwebeffects
Physiologicalversusecologicalgrowthoptima
Notalwaysthesameoptimalnicheversusrealizedniche
Highproductivityoceanicregionsareoftenhighlatitudeorupwelling
Relatedtooceanphysicsandnutrientavailabilityratherthangrowth
optima;compromisebetweenmixing(promotingnutrientavailability)and
temperature(promotingstratification)
Fig. 9-1
Environments
Manyecosystemsdefinedbythe
environment
Organismssubdividethatenvironment
Organismsthatsharehabitatsfindniches
withinthosehabitats
Strategiesandlivinghabits
Productivity
Highproductivity
Upwelling;lowlatitudes
Lowproductivity
Centralgyres;downwelling
ENSO
La Nina
Upwellingproductive
Noupwellingcollapse
El Nino
Western
Fig. 15-13 & 14
Productivity
Nt=Noekt
Addresourcelimitationtosetlimitsto
populationsize(Nt)
Oh,andlifepollutes
Phytoplanktongrowthintheocean
Temperatureoptimainthelabare2025deg
Highestproductivityathigherlatitudes!
Ecologicalgrowthoptimumis8degCduetooceanphysicsandnutrientavailability
Phytoplanktonproductivity
Relatedtophysics,light,&nutrientsupply
Ifsurfacewatersaretoowarm,water
stratifies&limitsnutrientresupplyfrom
bottomwaters
Highturbulenceincreasesmixingupof
nutrients
Compromisebetweennutrients&temp
Light
Onland,photosynthesisproceedsjustabove
groundlevel
Inwater,communitiesmaybeverticallystratified
Inthewater,photosynthesisproceedsto
considerabledepths,dependingon
Waterclarity
Sunangle
Seastate
Light
Unliketheatmosphere,waterattenuateslight,
especiallygreenandred
Thedepthtowhichlightpenetratesdependsonthe
amountandnatureofdissolvedandsuspended
constituents
Oceanicwaterscontainfewparticlesandareblue
Coastalwaterscontainhighphytoplankton
populationsandaregreen
Estuarinewaterscontainlotsofsuspended
sedimentsandlookbrown
Lightpenetrates
deepestinoceanic
waters
Bluelight
penetratesbest
Redlightisrapidly
attenuated
Lightpenetrationisshallowerin
planktonrichcoastalwaters
Phytoplanktonabsorbbluelightfor
photosynthesis
Waterabsorbsredlight
Coastaloceanlooksgreen
LightPenetrationinCoastalWaters
Photosynthesis
Dependsontheamountoflightupto
saturation
Dependsonthecoloroflightnotall
photonsareequivalent
Mostefficientwithblueandredlight,least
efficientwithgreenlight
Layersof
theocean
definedby
light
Temperature
Oceantemperaturevarieswith
Depth
Latitude
Temperaturecontrolsrateofchemicalreactions
Sloweratlowtemperaturebecausemoleculescarrylessenergy
Fewercollisions
Lessenergypercollision
Metabolismisdefinedbychemicalreactions
Mostorganismsareectothermicdontregulatebodytemperature
Someorganismsareendothermicregulationofbodytemperature
requires
lotsofenergy
goodinsulation
Salinity
Salinitycanvarywithrainfalland
evaporation
Changesinsalinity(upordown)canaffect
metabolicfunction,energyconsumption
andcellviability.
Differentorganismshaveverydifferent
salinitytolerances
MarineCommunitiesareHighly
Productive
MarineCommunitiesStoreLess
OrganicCarbonandTurnoverRates
areFasterthanTerrestrial
Communities
OceanProductivityObservedfromSpace
TrophicRelationships
EnergyTransfer
PrimaryProducersare
Autotrophs
harvestsunlight
Heterotrophsare
Consumers
eatorganicmatter
TheTrophicPyramid:
AModelofConsumption
FoodWebsIllustrateComplexTrophic
Relationships
Exploitationefficiency
Autotrophplantsµbes
Photosynthesisorchemosynthesis
ProduceorganicmatterfrominorganicCsources
Heterotrophacceleratechemreactionsto
gainenergy
Herbivores~20%
Carnivores~0.2%(notveryefficientat
convertingfoodtobiomass!)
Symbioses
Mutualismbothorganismsbenefit
Thatsbiologybutbiodiversity
Linkedtoecosystemhealthandstability
Numberofspeciesperunitareaorecosystem
Oftenthinkofdeforestation
Destructionoftropicalhabitats
Biodiversity
Numberofspecies
inacommunity
Diversityindices
Simpsondiversity=
1[(proportionof
speciesA)2+
(proportionof
speciesB)2+..]
Biodiversityovertime
Naturalchangesindiversityduetoevolution
andextinctionofspecies
Generalincreaseindiversityovertime
Interuptedbyextinctionevents
26myperiodicityinextinctionevents?
Extraterrestrialcause?
Extinctionisnatural
Over90%ofspeciesthathaveevolvedareextinct
26 my periodicity
etc.
Recentchangesinbiodiversity
Presentdayratesexceedgeologicalratesofextinction
Presentdayextinctionisacrosstheboardaffectsmanygroups
Otherextinctioneventsaffectedspecieswithinparticular
groupsothergroupssurvived
ExampleisKTextinctionofdinosaurs;mammalsandplantssurvived
toreradiate
Modernextinctionassociatedwithspreadofhumanpopulations
Overhunting/fishing
Habitatdestructiondeforestation&coralbleaching
Deforestation&biodiversity
Posterchild
Thetropicsistheareaofgreatestrateof
speciesloss
Concernformorethanbiodiversity
AdditionofCO2
LossofCO2uptakemechanism
Impactonregionalclimate
Deforestationandsoilnutrients
Distinctdifferencesinstorageofbiomass&nutrient
cyclingbetweentemperate&tropicalforests
Temperateforestshavethick,richtopsoils
Humuslayeroforganicdetritusontopofsubsoil
Nutrientsstoredinsoils
Tropicalsoilsarehighlyweathered(lotsofrain)
Lateriticclaysdepletedinnutrients
Thinhumuslayer
Nutrientsstoredinbiomass
Tropicalaboveground
storageofbiomass&nutrients
Modelresultsdecreaseforestcover,increasealbedo,
decreasewintertemperatures,increaseseaice,
increasealbedo,decreasetemperatures.
Deforestationandrecovery
Rainforestslossofrainforesttreesleadsto
lossofnutrients&changesinthewater
cycle
Temperateforestsrecoverbecausenutrients
retainedinthesoils
Deforestation&watercycle&climate
Eliminationoftropicalrainforestsdisruptsregionalwater
cycle
Minimizesevapotranspiration(sourceofH2Otoatm)
Decreasessoilmoistureandincreasesrunoff
Increaseserosionrates
Soilsformslowly
2001500yrstoform2.5cmoftopsoilfrombedrock
Generalcirculationmodelstopredict
Nettemperatureincrease
Decreaseinsoilmoisture
Highrecyclingsustainshighproductivity
decreases
(change in albedo)
Decreaseforestcover
Increaserunoff
Decreasenutrientsupply
Decreaseforestcover
Decreaseforestcover decreases
Increasealbedo
Decreasenetradiation
Decreasetemp
Decreaseevapotranspiration
Increasetemperature
Decreaseclouds
Increasetemperatures
Biodiversityanddeforestationintropical
areas
Halfofthelivingspeciesarefoundinrainforests
Forestplantshavemedicalvalue
Treatmentofdiseases
Forestplantshaveagriculturalvalue
Needgeneticdiversityforlongtermhealth(Darwinianevolution)
Needvarietytolimitvulnerabilitytodiseasesandpests
Modernagriculturalpracticeslimitdiversities
Centersofgeneticdiversityforcropscomefromareasthreatenedby
development,populationpressures,deforestation
Seedbanks
Biodiversityandecosystemstability
Relationshipiscomplex
Insomesettingsenvironmentalstabilityleadstohighdiversity
Inothers,highdiversityisthoughttoresultfromdisturbances
ofintermediatefrequencyandintensity
Howdoeslossofbiodiversityimpactecosystem?
Removeenoughspeciesandecosystemcollapses(removalof
predators;invasivespecies)
Maybethatsomespeciesarentnecessarysystem
maintainedbyafewkeystonespecies
Causesofdeforestation
Social,political,andeconomicdrivers
Economicargumentspeopleandcountries
needhardcurrency(Nepal)
Motivationnotto
Whowillbearthecostsofnotexploiting
resources?
Earthwillrecover,willhumanssurvive?
Biodiversityovertimegeologic
Naturalchangesduetonewspecies
evolvingandextinction
Generalincreasethatshouldtheoretically
occurovertime
Extinctioneventscleanstheslate
Naturalextinction90%ofspecieseveralive
areextintnow
26 my periodicity
etc.
Fig. 13-4
Darwinsmainpoints
Inanypopulation,moreoffspringareproducedthat
cansurvivetoreproduction
Geneticvariationoccursinpopulations
Someinheritedtraitsincreasetheprobabilityof
survival
Bearersofthosetraitsaremorelikelytoleave
offspringtothenextgenerationthosetraits
accumulate
Environmentalconditionsdetermineswhichtraitsare
favorable
BiogeochemicalCycles
Elementscyclebetweenorganisms,thewater,the
sedimentsandtheland
Themaintenanceofliferequirescontinuedaccessto
theseelements
Onlyafewareofbiogeochemicalsignificance
C,N,P,Si,Fe
Elementalratiosinlivingorganismsarefairly
constant
RedfieldRatioC:N:P106:16:1
TheElementsofLife
Inadditiontoenergy,life
requirescertainmaterial
substances
Allorganismsrequire23
basicelements
Availabilityofthese
elementscanlimitgrowth
andsurvival
TheCarbonCycle
Abasicbuildingblockoflife
Largestofallbiogeochemicalcycles
Availabilityrarelylimitsmarineproductivity
Seagrassesareimportantexceptions
TheNitrogenCycle
Nisacriticalcomponentofproteins,nucleic
acidsandpigments(e.g.chlorophyll)
Traditionallyviewedasthemostlimiting
nutrientinthesea
LiebigsLawoftheMinimum
GrowthislimitedNOTBYTHETOTAL
RESOURCESAVAILABLEbutbythesingle
resourceinshortestsupply,
TheNitrogenCycle
FreeN2comprises80%oftheatmosphere
Notgenerallybiologicallyavailable
BiologicalavailabilityrequiresFIXATION
Formostofearthshistory,Nfixationwasmediatedby
smallmicrobescyanobacteriaandwasgenerallyin
shortsupply
CyanobacteriaarephotosyntheticbutN2fixationis
inhibitedbyoxygen.Howcanthisbe?
HumansnowuseindustrialprocessestoFIXmoreN2than
natureonanannualbasis
MostoftheanthropogenicallyfixedNultimatelywindsup
inourrivers,estuaries&coastalwaterswhereitpromotes
HARMFULALGALBLOOMS
TheNitrogenCycle
ThePhosphorusandSiliconCycles
Phosphorusisnecessaryfornucleicacids
(DNA,RNA,ATPetc.),bone,teethandsome
shells
Silicon(NOTsilicone)isusedbydiatomsand
radiolarianstomaketheirskeletons
PandSicyclesinvolve3loops
Mostrapidcycleinvolveddailyfeeding,death
anddecayoforganisms
Someorganismsfallbelowthepycnocline
whereitcantakehundredsofyearstoreturnto
thesunlitportionofthesea
Someorganismsgetburiedinthesediments;it
maytakemillionsofyearsandtectonic
activitytoreturntheSitothesurfacewater
Ironandothertracemetals
Usedinminutequantities
Longthoughttobeinexcesssupply
Ironisveryabundantbutnotverysoluble
Ironshipsandsamplinggearcontaminatedearlysamples
JohnMartinfirstshowedthatironcouldlimitoceanproduc
tivity
Highnutrientlowchlorophyll(HNLC)areaslimitedby
iron
SubarcticPacific
EquatorialPacific
Antarcticconvergence
Continentaldustisamajorsourceof
irontooceanwaters
HNLCareasarefarfromironinputs
fromlandrunofforcontinentaldust