Chapter 24: The

Digestive
System

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

2 groups of organs compose the

digestive system

Gastrointenstinal (GI) tract or alimentary canal

mouth, most of pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
Accessory digestive organs teeth, tongue,
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Parotidgland
(salivarygland)
Submandibulargland
(salivarygland)

Mouth(oralcavity)
containsteethandtongue
Sublingualgland
(salivarygland)
Pharynx

Esophagus
Liver
Duodenum
Gallbladder
Jejunum
Ascendingcolon
Ileum
Cecum
Appendix

Stomach
Pancreas
Transversecolon
Descendingcolon
Sigmoidcolon
Rectum
Analcanal
Anus

(a)Rightlateralviewofheadandneckandanteriorviewoftrunk

6 functions of the digestive

system
1.
2.

3.
4.

Ingestion
Secretion of water, acid, buffers, and
enzymes into lumen
Mixing and propulsion
Digestion

5.
6.

Mechanical digestion churns food

Chemical digestion hydrolysis

Absorption passing into blood or lymph

Defecation elimination of feces
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
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Layers of the GI tract

Wall of GI tract from lower esophagus to anal
canal has same basic 4 layers
Mucosa inner lining

1.

Epithelium protection, secretion, absorption

Lamina propria connective tissue with blood and
lymphatic vessels and mucosa-associated lymphatic
tissue (MALT)
Muscularis mucosae thin layer of smooth muscle
making folds to increase surface area

Submucosa

2.

Connective tissue binding mucosa to muscularis

Contains many blood and lymphatic vessels
Submucosal plexus
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
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Layers of the GI tract

3.

Muscularis

Voluntary skeletal muscle found in mouth, pharynx, upper

2/3 of esophagus, and anal sphincter
Involuntary smooth muscle elsewhere

4.

Arranged in inner circular fibers and outer longitudinal fibers

Myenteric plexus between muscle layers

Serosa

Outermost covering of organs suspended in

abdominopelvic cavity
Also called visceral peritoneum
Esophagus lacks serosa has adventitia
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
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Ductofglandoutside
tract(suchas
pancreas)

Submucosalplexus
(plexusofMeissner)
Glandin
mucosa

Mucosaassociated
lymphatictissue
(MALT)
Lumen

Mesentery

Vein
Glandsin
submucosa

Artery

MUCOSA:
Epithelium
Laminapropria
Muscularis
mucosae

Nerve
Myentericplexus
(plexusofAuerbach)

SUBMUCOSA
MUSCULARIS:
Circularmuscle
Longitudinalmuscle

SEROSA:
Areolarconnectivetissue
Epithelium

Neural innervation

Enteric nervous system (ENS)

Intrinsic set of nerves - brain of gut
Neurons extending from esophagus to anus
2 plexuses

Myenteric plexus GI tract motility

Submucosal plexus controlling secretions

Autonomic nervous system

Extrinsic set of nerves
Parasympathetic stimulation increases secretion and
activity by stimulating ENS
Sympathetic stimulation decreases secretions and
activity by inhibiting ENS
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

ENTERICNERVOUSSYSTEM

ToANSand
CNSneurons

Myentericplexus

Interneuron

Submucosalplexus

Motorneuron

Motorneuron

Longitudinaland
circularsmoothmuscle
layersofthemuscularis

Sensoryneuron

Mucosalepithelium

Peritoneum

Largest serous membrane of the body

Divided into

Parietal peritoneum lines wall of cavity

Visceral peritoneum covers some organs

Also called serosa

Space between is peritoneal cavity

5 major peritoneal folds

Greater omentum, falciform ligament, lesser omentum,

mesentery, and mesocolon
Weave between viscera binding organs together
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Peritoneum Cont.

Greater omentum largest fatty apron

Falciform ligament attaches liver to anterior abdominal wall
Lesser omentum suspends stomach and duodenum from
liver passage for hepatic portal vein and artery and common
bile duct
Next two loosely hold the intestines allowing for movement.

Mesentery bind jejunum and ilieum of Small Intestines to

posterior abdominal wall
Mesocolon - bind transverse and sigmoid colon to posterior
abdominal wall

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Diaphragm
Liver

LESSEROMENTUM

Pancreas
Stomach

MESOCOLON

Duodenum

MESENTERY

Transversecolon

GREATEROMENTUM

Jejunum
Ileum

PARIETALPERITONEUM

Sigmoidcolon
Uterus

VISCERALPERITONEUM

Urinarybladder

PERITONEALCAVITY

Rectum
Pubicsymphysis
POSTERIOR

ANTERIOR

(a)Midsagittalsectionshowingtheperitonealfolds

Midsagittal
plane

FALCIFORMLIGAMENT
Liver
Stomach
Transversecolon
GREATEROMENTUM
Urinarybladder
(b)Anteriorview

Gallbladder(reflected
upward)

LESSEROMENTUM

Liver
(reflectedupward)

Stomach
Duodenum

Transverse
colon

Descendingcolon

Ascending
colon

Sigmoidcolon

(c)Lesseromentum,anteriorview
(liverandgallbladderlifted)

GREATEROMENTUM
(reflectedupward)
Transversecolon
Jejunum(pulledlaterally)
MESENTERY
Descendingcolon
Ileum(pulledlaterally)
Sigmoidcolon
Urinarybladder

(d)Anteriorview(greateromentumlifted
andsmallintestinereflectedtorightside)

Mouth

Oral or buccal cavity

Formed by cheeks, hard and soft palates, and
tongue
Oral cavity proper, is a space that extends from
gums and teeth to fauces (opening between oral
cavity and oropharynx)
Salivary glands release saliva

Ordinarily, just enough is secreted to keep mouth and

pharynx moist and clean
When food enters mouth, secretion increases to lubricate,
dissolve and begin chemical digestion
3 pairs of major salivary glands secrete most of the saliva

Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
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Superiorlip(liftedupward)
Superiorlabialfrenulum
Gingivae(gums)
Palatoglossalarch

Hardpalate

Fauces

Softpalate

Palatopharyngealarch

Uvula
Cheek

Palatinetonsil
(betweenthearches)

Molars

Tongue(liftedupward)
Lingualfrenulum
Openingofductof
submandibulargland

Premolars
Cuspid(canine)
Incisors
Oralvestibule

Gingivae(gums)
Inferiorlabialfrenulum
Inferiorlip(pulleddown)
Anteriorview

Central incisor(812 mo.)

Lateral incisor(1224 mo.)
Cuspid or canine (1624 mo.)

D E FG
H
C
B
I
A
J

First molar (1216 mo.)

Second molar (2432 mo.)

Upper Teeth

Lower Teeth

Second molar (2432 mo.)

T
K
S
L
R
M
Q P ON

First molar (1216 mo.)

Cuspid or canine (1624 mo.)
Lateral incisor(1215 mo.)

Central incisor(68 mo.)

(a) Deciduous (primary) dentition; teeth are designated by letters

(with times of eruption)

Central incisor (78 yr.)

Lateral incisor(89 yr.)
7 8
6

5
4

Cuspid or canine (1112 yr.)

9 1011
12
13

First premolar or bicuspid (910 yr.)

Second premolar or bicuspid
(1012 yr.)

14

First molar (67 yr.)

15

Upper Teeth 16

Lower Teeth

32
31

Second molar (1213 yr.)

Third molar or wisdom tooth
(1721 yr.)
Third molar or wisdom tooth
(1721 yr.)

17
18

30

Second molar (1113 yr.)

29
28
2726

19

First molar (67 yr.)

20
21

Second premolar or bicuspid

(1112 yr.)

22
252423

(b) Permanent (secondary)

dentition; teeth are designated by
numbers (with times of eruption)

First premolar or bicuspid (910 yr.)

Cuspid or canine (910 yr.)
Lateral incisor(78 yr.)
Central incisor(78 yr.)

Parotidduct
Zygomaticarch
PAROTIDGLAND

Openingofparotidduct
(nearsecondmaxillarymolar)
Secondmaxillarymolartooth

Tongue(raisedinmouth)
Lingualfrenulum

Sublingualducts
Lessersublingualduct

Submandibularduct

SUBMANDIBULARGLAND
SUBLINGUALGLAND

The three major salivary

glands- parotid, sublingual,
Mylohyoidmuscle and submandibular

(a)Locationofsalivaryglands

Saliva

Saliva
Mostly water 99.5%
0.5% solutes ions, dissolved gases, urea, uric acid,
mucus, immunoglobulin A, lysozyme, and

salivary amylase (acts on starch)

Not all salivary glands produce the same saliva

Salivation
Controlled by autonomic nervous system
Parasympathetic stimulation promotes secretion of
moderate amount of saliva
Sympathetic stimulation decreases salivation

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Tongue and Teeth

Tongue

Accessory digestive organ

Skeletal muscle covered by mucous membrane
Maneuvers food for chewing, shapes mass, forces food
back for swallowing
Lingual glands secrete salivary lipase

Teeth or dentes

Accessory digestive organ

3 major regions crown, root, and neck
Dentin of crown covered by enamel
2 dentitions deciduous and permanent teeth
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
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Sagittal
plane

Enamel
Dentin

CROWN

Gingival sulcus
Gingiva (gum)
Pulp in pulp
cavity

NECK

Cementum
Root canal
Alveolar bone

ROOT

Periodontal
ligament
Apical foramen
Nerve
Sagittal section of a mandibular (lower) molar

Blood supply

Digestion in the mouth

Mechanical digestion in the mouth

Chewing or mastication
Food manipulated by tongue, ground by teeth, and mixed
with saliva
Forms bolus

Chemical digestion in the mouth

Salivary amylase secreted by salivary glands acts on

starches

Only monosaccharides can be absorbed

Continues to act until inactivated by stomach acid

Lingual lipase secreted by lingual glands of tongue acts on

triglycerides

Becomes activated in acidic environment of stomach

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
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Pharynx

Passes from mouth into pharynx

3 parts

Nasopharynx

Oropharynx

Functions only in respiration

Digestive and respiratory functions

Laryngopharynx

Digestive and respiratory functions

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

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Esophagus

Secretes mucous, transports food no enzymes

produced, no absorption
Mucosa protection against wear and tear
Submucosa
Muscularis divided in thirds

Superior 1/3 skeletal muscle

Middle 1/3 skeletal and smooth muscle
Inferior 1/3 smooth muscle
2 sphincters upper esophageal sphincter (UES) regulates
movement into esophagus, lower esophageal sphincter
(LES) regulates movement into stomach

Adventitia no serosa attaches to surroundings

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
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Histology of the esophagus

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Deglutition

Act of swallowing
Facilitated by secretions of saliva and mucus
Involves mouth, pharynx, and esophagus
3 stages

Voluntary bolus passed to oropharynx

Pharyngeal involuntary passage through pharynx into
esophagus
Esophageal involuntary passage through esophagus to
stomach

Peristalsis pushes bolus forward

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Nasopharynx
Hardpalate
Softpalate
Uvula
Oropharynx

Bolus
Tongue

Epiglottis
Laryngopharynx
Larynx
Esophagus

(a)Positionofstructuresbeforeswallowing

(b)Duringpharyngealstage
ofswallowing

Esophagus
Relaxedmuscularis
Circularmuscles
contract

Longitudinalmuscles
contract
Relaxedmuscularis

Loweresophageal
sphincter

Bolus

Stomach

(c)Anteriorviewoffrontalsectionsofperistalsisinesophagus

Stomach

Serves as mixing chamber and holding reservoir

4 main regions

Cardia, fundus, body, pylorus

Same 4 layers

Mucosa gastric glands open into gastric pits

3 types of exocrine gland cells mucous neck cells
(mucus), parietal cells (intrinsic factor; V-B12 and HCl),
and chief cells (pepsinogen and gastric lipase)
G cell endocrine cell secretes H gastrin
Submucosa
Muscularis additional 3rd inner oblique layer
Serosa part of visceral peritoneum
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
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Esophagus
Loweresophageal
sphincter

FUNDUS
Serosa
CARDIA

Muscularis:
Longitudinallayer

BODY

Circularlayer

Lessercurvature
PYLORUS

Obliquelayer

Greatercurvature
Duodenum
Pyloric
sphincter

Rugaeofmucosa

PYLORICANTRUM
PYLORICCANAL

(a)Anteriorviewofregionsofstomach

Esophagus
Duodenum
PYLORUS
Pyloricsphincter
PYLORICCANAL
Lesser
curvature
PYLORICANTRUM

FUNDUS
CARDIA
BODY
Rugaeofmucosa

Greatercurvature

(b)Anteriorviewofinternalanatomy

Lumenofstomach
Gastricpits
Surfacemucous
cell
Laminapropria

Lymphaticnodule

Mucousneckcell
Parietalcell
Chiefcell
Gastricgland
Gcell

Muscularismucosae

MUCOSA

SUBMUCOSA

Lymphaticvessel
MUSCULARIS

Venule
Arteriole
Obliquelayerofmuscle
Circularlayerofmuscle

SEROSA

Myentericplexus
Longitudinallayer
ofmuscle

(a)Threedimensionalviewoflayersofstomach

Gastricpit
Surfacemucouscells
Gastric
pit
Lamina
SEM

40x

propria

Stomachmucosa

Gastric
glands

Muscularis
mucosae

Surfacemucouscell
(secretesmucus)
Mucousneckcell
(secretesmucus)
Parietalcell(secretes
hydrochloricacid
andintrinsicfactor)
Chiefcell(secretes
pepsinogenand
gastriclipase)
Gcell(secretesthe
hormonegastrin)

Submucosa
(b)Sectionalviewofstomachmucosashowinggastricglandsandcelltypes

Mechanical and Chemical

Digestion

Mechanical digestion

Mixing waves gentle, rippling peristaltic movements

creates chyme

Chemical digestion

Digestion by salivary amylase continues until inactivated by

acidic gastric juice
Acidic gastric juice activates lingual lipase

Digest triglycerides into fatty acids and diglycerides

Parietal cells secrete H+ and Cl- separately but net effect is

HCl

Kills many microbes, denatures proteins

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

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Chemical Digestion

Chemical digestion (cont.)

Pepsin secreted by chief cells digest proteins

Secreted as pepsinogen

Gastric lipase splits triglycerides into fatty acids

and monoglycerides

Small amount of nutrient absorption

Some water, ions, short chain fatty acids, certain

drugs (aspirin) and alcohol

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Pancreas

Lies posterior to greater curvature of stomach

Pancreatic juice secreted into pancreatic duct and
accessory duct and to small intestine

Pancreatic duct joins common bile duct and enters

duodenum at hepatopancreatic ampulla

Histology

99% of cells are acini

Exocrine
Secrete pancreatic juice mixture of fluid and digestive
enzymes

1% of cells are pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)

Endocrine
Secrete hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and
pancreatic polypeptide

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

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Falciformligament
Diaphragm
Rightlobeofliver
Righthepatic
duct

Coronaryligament
Leftlobeofliver
Lefthepaticduct
Commonhepaticduct

Gallbladder:
Neck
Body

Roundligament

Cysticduct

Fundus

Commonbileduct
Pancreas

Tail
Body

Duodenum

Pancreaticduct(ductof
Wirsung)

Accessoryduct
(ductofSantorini)

Head

Hepatopancreaticampulla
(ampullaofVater)

Uncinateprocess

Jejunum

(a)Anteriorview

Commonbileduct
Hepatopancreaticampulla
(ampullaofVater)

Pancreaticduct
(ductofWirsung)

Mucosaof
duodenum

Major
duodenal
papilla
Sphincterofthehepatopancreatic
ampulla(sphincterofOddi)
(b)Detailsofhepatopancreaticampulla

Righthepatic
duct

Lefthepatic
duct

Commonhepatic
ductfromliver
Cysticductfrom
gallbladder

Commonbileduct

Key:
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas

Pancreaticduct
frompancreas
Sphincter
Duodenum

(c)Ductscarryingbilefromliverandgallbladderand
pancreaticjuicefrompancreastoduodenum

Pancreatic juice

1200-1500ml daily (1.2-1.5 qt)

Mostly water

Sodium bicarbonate buffers acidic stomach chyme

Enzymes

Pancreatic amylase (starch)

Proteolytic enzymes trypsin (secreted as trypsinogen),
chymotrypsin (chymotrypsinogen), carboxypeptidase
(procarboxypeptidase), elastase (proelastase)
Pancreatic lipase (triglyceride)
Ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease (nucleic acids)

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Liver and gallbladder

Liver is the heaviest gland of the body

Liver is composed of
Hepatocytes major functional cells of liver

Bile canaliculi ducts between hepatocytes that collect bile

Wide variety of metabolic, secretory, and endocrine functions

secrete bile (excretory product and digestive secretion)
Exits livers as common hepatic duct, joins cystic duct from
gallbladder to form common bile duct

Hepatic sinusoids highly permeable blood capillaries receiving

oxygenated blood from hepatic artery and deoxygenated nutrientrich blood from hepatic portal vein

3 different ways to organize units

Hepatic acinus preferred method

Hepatocytes arranged in 3 zones around short axis with no sharp

boundaries
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Liver
Inferiorvenacava
Hepaticartery
Hepaticportalvein
Connective
tissue
Portaltriad:
Bileduct

Hepatocyte
Hepatic
laminae

Branchof
hepaticartery
Branchof
hepaticportalvein
Centralvein

Hepaticsinusoids

(a)Overviewofhistologicalcomponentsofliver

Central
vein

Tohepatic
vein

Hepatic
sinusoids

Bilecanaliculi

Portaltriad:
Bileduct
Branchofhepatic
portalvein
Branchofhepatic
artery
Hepaticlaminae
Hepatocyte
Stellate
reticuloendothelial
(Kupffer)cell
Connectivetissue

Hepaticsinusoid
(b)Detailsofhistologicalcomponentsofliver

Centralvein
Portal
triad

Hepaticlobule

Portallobule

Hepaticacinus

(d)Comparisonofthreeunitsofliverstructureandfunction

Portaltriad

Central
vein

Central
vein

Zone3
Zone2
Zone1

(e)Detailsofhepaticacinus

Zone 1 Cells 1st to receive oxygenated blood,

nutrients and any toxins, 1st to take up glucose
and store as glycogen after a meal. Also 1 st to
show change if there is a bile duct obstruction
and last to die (poor circulation) and 1 st to
regenerate.
Zone 3 Cells last to show effect of bile duct
obstruction or toxin, 1st to show effect from poor
circulation and last to regenerate, 1 st to show
effect of fat accumulation.
Zone 2 Cells
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Gallbladder

Contraction of smooth muscle fibers eject

contents of gall bladder into cystic duct
Functions to store and concentrate bile
produced by the liver until it is needed in the
small intestine
Absorbs water and ions to concentrate bile up
to ten-fold

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Hepatic blood flow

Liver receives blood from

Hepatic artery carrying oxygenated blood
Hepatic portal vein carrying deoxygenated blood
with newly absorbed nutrients and possibly drugs,
microbes or toxins from GI tract

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Oxygenatedbloodfrom
hepaticartery

Nutrientrich,
deoxygenatedbloodfrom
hepaticportalvein

Liversinusoids

Centralvein

Hepaticvein

Inferiorvenacava

Rightatriumofheart

Hepatic

Inferior vena cava

Stomach

Spleen

HEPATIC PORTAL

Short gastric
Left gastric

Liver

Pancreas (behind stomach)

Cystic

Pancreati
c
Left
gastroepiploic
Right gastric

Gallbladder
Duodenum
Pancreaticoduoden
al
Pancreas
Transverse colon
Right colic

SPLENIC
SUPERIOR
MESENTERIC
Middle
colic
Jejunal
Jejunal
andileal
andileal

Ascending colon

Right gastroepiploic
Left colic
Inferior
mesenteric
Descending colon

Ileocolic
Cecum

Sigmoidal

Appendix
Ileum
Drain into superior mesenteric
vein
Drain into splenic vein
Drain into inferior mesenteric
vein
(a) Anterior view of veins draining into hepatic portal vein

Sigmoid colon
Superior rectal
Rectum

Inferior vena cava

Heart

Hepatic veins

Liver

Abdominal
aorta

Proper
hepatic
artery
Splenic
vein

Tributaries from portions of

stomach, pancreas, and
portions of large intestine

Superior
mesenteric
vein

Tributaries from small intestine

and portions of large intestine,
stomach, and pancreas

Hepatic
portal
vein

(b) Scheme of principal blood vessels of hepatic portal circulation and

arterial supply and venous drainage of liver

Role and composition of bile

Hepatocytes secrete 800-1000mL of bile daily

Mostly water, bile salts, cholesterol, lecithin, bile
pigments and several ions
Bilirubin principal bile pigment

Derived from heme of recycled RBCs

Breakdown product stercobilin gives feces brown color

Bile salts play role in emulsification

Also aid in absorption of lipids following digestion

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Functions of the Liver p.995

Carbohydrate metabolism and blood glucose homeostasis.

Lipid and protein metabolism and produce plasma proteins
Process drugs and proteins
Excretion of bilirubin a waste from recycles RBC and
excreted in feces
Synthesis of bile salts emulsification and absorption of
lipids,
Storage glycogen, A, B12, D, E, K, iron and copper See
Table 25.5 and 25.6,
Phagocytosis reticuloendothelial cells, RBC, WBC

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Small intestine

3 regions duodenum (10), jejunum (3), and ileum

(6) Pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal sphincter
Same 4 layers
1.
Mucosa

Absorptive cells (digest and absorb), goblet cells (mucus),

intestinal glands (intestinal juice), Paneth cells (lysozyme),
and enteroendocrine cells
Abundance of MALT

Submucosa

2.

Duodenal glands secrete alkaline mucus

Muscularis
Serosa

3.
4.

Completely surrounds except for major portion of duodenum

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Anatomy of the small

intestine

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Special structural features

increase surface area for

digestion
and absorption
Circular folds

Permanent ridges of mucosa and submucosa

Cause chyme to spiral

Villi

Fingerlike projections of mucosa

Contains arteriole, venule, blood capillary, and lacteal

Microvilli

Projects of apical membrane of absorptive cells

Brush border with brush border enzymes

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Circularfolds
(plicaecirculares)

Circularfolds

Villi
Submucosa
(a)Relationshipof
villitocircularfolds

Circularlayerof
muscle
Longitudinal
layerofmuscle
Serosa

Lumenofsmallintestine
Blood
capillary

Lacteal

Villi

Openingof
intestinalgland

Absorptivecell
Gobletcell
Lacteal
Laminapropria

MUCOSA

Enteroendocrinecell
Panethcell
Lymphaticnodule
Muscularismucosae
Arteriole
Venule
Lymphaticvessel

SUBMUCOSA
MUSCULARIS

Circularlayerofmuscle
Myentericplexus
Longitudinallayer
ofmuscle

(b)Threedimensionalviewoflayersofthesmallintestineshowingvilli

SEROSA

Microvilli
Absorptivecell
(absorbsnutrients)

Blood
capillary
Lacteal
Mucosa

Gobletcell
(secretesmucus)

Lamina
propria
Intestinal
gland

Enteroendocrinecell
(secretesthehormones
secretin,
cholecystokinin,orGIP)

Muscularis
mucosae
Arteriol
Submucosa

Muscularis

Venule
Lymphatic
vessel

Panethcell(secretes
lysozymeandiscapable
ofphagocytosis)
(c)Enlargedvillusshowinglacteal,
capillaries,intestinalglands,andcelltype

Histology of the duodenum

and ileum

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Intestinal juice and brushborder enzymes

Intestinal juice

1-2L daily
Contains water and mucus, slightly alkaline
Provide liquid medium aiding absorption

Brush border enzymes

Inserted into plasma membrane of absorptive cells

Some enzymatic digestion occurs at surface rather than
just in lumen
Carbohydrate = -dextrinase, maltase, sucrase, lactase,
Protein = aminopetidase, dipeptidase, nucleotide =
nucleosidases and phosphatases
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Mechanical Digestion

Governed by myenteric plexus

Segmentations

Localized, mixing contractions

Mix chyme and bring it in contact with mucosa for
absorption

Migrating motility complexes (MMC)

Type of peristalsis
Begins in lower portion of stomach and pushes food
forward

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Chemical digestion

Carbohydrates

Pancreatic amylase
-dextrinase, sucrase, lactase, maltase in brush border
Ends with monosaccharides which can be absorbed

Proteins

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and elastase

from pancreas proteins to peptides
Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase in brush border

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Lipids and Nucleic Acids

Lipids

Pancreatic lipase most important in triglyceride digestion

Emulsification by bile salts increases surface area of
lipids.

Nucleic acids

Ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease in pancreatic juice

Nucleosidases and phosphatases in brush border

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Absorption of:

Monosaccharides

All dietary carbohydrates digested are absorbed

Only indigestible cellulose and fibers left in feces
Absorbed by facilitated diffusion or active transport into
blood

Amino acids, dipetides and tripeptides

Most absorbed as amino acids via active transport into

blood
of absorbed amino acids come from proteins in
digestive juice and dead mucosal cells

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Lipids

All dietary lipids absorbed by simple diffusion

Short-chain fatty acids go into blood for transport
Long-chain fatty acids and monoglycerides

Enter lacteals to eventually enter blood

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Glucoseand
galactose

Fructose

Secondaryactive
transportwithNa+

Facilitated
diffusion

Facilitated
diffusion

Aminoacids

Activetransportor
secondaryactive
transportwithNa+

Dipeptides
Tripeptides
Smallshortchain
fattyacids

Toblood
capillaryofa
villus

Aminoacids
Diffusion

Secondaryactive
transportwithH+
Simplediffusion

Largeshortchain
andlongchain
fattyacids
Micelle

Monosaccharides

Diffusion
Triglyceride

Simple
diffusion

Tolacteal
ofavillus

Monoglycerides

Lumenofsmall
intestine

Chylomicron
Microvilli(brush
border)onapical
surface

Basolateralsurface

Epithelialcells
ofvillus

(a)Mechanismsformovementofnutrientsthroughabsorptiveepithelialcellsofvilli

Leftsubclavian
vein

Villus(greatlyenlarged)
Chylomicron

Heart

Liver

Thoracicduct

Hepatic
portal
vein

Small
short
chain
fatty
acid

Blood
capillary

Aminoacid

Lacteal

Monosaccharide

Arteriole

Venule
Blood

Lymphaticvessel

Lymph

(b)Movementofabsorbednutrientsintobloodandlymph

Absorption of:

Electrolytes

Vitamins

From GI secretions or food

Sodium ions (Na+) reclaimed by active transport
Other ions also absorbed by active transport
Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K absorbed by simple
diffusion and transported with lipids in micelles
Most water-soluble vitamins also absorbed by simple diffusion

Water

9.3L comes from ingestion (2.3L) and GI secretions (7.0L)

Most absorbed in small intestine, some in large intestine
Only 100ml excreted in feces
All water absorption by osmosis

Digestion Video See

Video Chapters 1-2
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/can-i
-eat-that.html

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

INGESTEDANDSECRETED

ABSORBED

Saliva(1liter)
Ingestionofliquids
(2.3liters)
Gastricjuice
(2liters)

Bile(1liter)
Pancreaticjuice
(2liters)
Intestinaljuice
(1liter)

Smallintestine
(8.3liters)

Totalingested
andsecreted
=9.3liters

Largeintestine
(0.9liters)
Totalabsorbed
=9.2liters

Excretedinfeces
(0.1liter)
FluidbalanceinGItract

Large intestine

Overall function to complete absorption, produce

certain vitamins, and form and expel feces
4 major regions cecum, colon, rectum, and anal
canal
Ileocecal sphincter between small and large
intestine
Colon divided into ascending, transverse,
descending and sigmoid
Opening of anal canal (anus) guarded by internal
anal sphincter of smooth muscle and external anal
sphincter of skeletal muscle
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

TRANSVERSECOLON
Leftcolic(splenic)
flexure

Rightcolic
(hepatic)flexure

Teniaecoli
ASCENDING
COLON
Teniae
coli

DESCENDINGCOLON

Ileum

Omental
appendices

Mesoappendix

Haustra

Ileocecal
sphincter
(valve)

CECUM

RECTUM
VERMIFORMAPPENDIX

SIGMOID
COLON

ANALCANAL
ANUS

(a)Anteriorviewoflargeintestineshowingmajorregions

Rectum

Analcanal

Internalanalsphincter
(involuntary)
Externalanalsphincter
(voluntary)

Anus

Analcolumn

(b)Frontalsectionofanalcanal

Large Intestine

Same 4 layers
Mucosa mostly absorptive and goblet cells

Submucosa
Muscularis

No circular folds or villi

Does have microvilli

Longitudinal muscle modified to form teniae coli

Forms haustra pouches

Serosa
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Digestion of the Large

Intestine

Mechanical digestion

Haustral churning
Peristalsis
Mass peristalsis drives contents of colon toward rectum

Chemical digestion

Final stage of digestion through bacterial action

Ferment carbohydrates, produce some B vitamins and vitamin

K

Mucus but no enzymes secreted

Remaining water absorbed along with ions and

some vitamins
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Lumenoflargeintestine
Openings
ofintestinalglands
Absorptivecell

Gobletcell

MUCOSA

Intestinalgland
Laminapropria
Lymphaticnodule
Muscularismucosae
Lymphaticvessel
Arteriole
Venule
Circularlayerofmuscle

SUBMUCOSA
MUSCULARIS

SEROSA

Myentericplexus
Longitudinallayerof
muscle

(a)Threedimensionalviewoflayersoflargeintestine

Openingsof
intestinalglands
Laminapropria
Microvilli
Intestinalgland

Absorptivecell
(absorbswater)

Gobletcell(secretesmucus)
Muscularis
mucosae

Lymphatic
nodule

Submucosa
(b)Sectionalviewofintestinalglandsandcelltypes

Histology of the large

intestine

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Phases of digestion

Cephalic phase

Gastric phase

Smell, sight, thought or initial taste of food

activates neural centers prepares mouth and
stomach for food to be eaten
Neural and hormonal mechanisms promote gastric
secretion and motility

Intestinal phase

Begins when food enter small intestine

Slows exit of chyme from stomach
Stimulates flow of bile and pancreatic juice
Copyright 2009, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Foodentering
stomachdisrupts
homeostasisby
Increasing
pHofgastricjuice
Distention(stretching)
ofstomachwalls

Receptors
Chemorecepto
rs and stretch
receptors in
stomach
detect pH
increase and
distention
Input
Controlcenter

Nerve
impulses

Submucosalplexus

Output

Returntohomeostasis
whenresponsebringspH
ofgastricjuiceand
distentionofstomach
wallsbacktonormal
(preeatingstatus)

Nerveimpulses
(parasympathetic)

Effectors
Parietalcells
secreteHCIand
smoothmusclein
stomachwall
contractsmore
vigorously

Increaseinacidityof
stomachchyme;mixing
ofstomachcontents;
emptyingofstomach

HCI

Defecation reflex

Mass peristaltic movement from sigmoid

colon to rectum, distension triggers reflex.

Diarrhea
Constipation

Exercise, stress, fluid intake, dietary fiber

Copyright 2009, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.