The Digestive System

Contd
(From Swallowing)

The Mechanism of Swallowing

Consists of three phases:

Oral Phase
Pharyngeal Phase
Esophageal Phase

Check out this site

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-lWqRmDb_FUk/Ti-gBZe9txI/AAAAAAAAA1Y/yQ97Ags_Zg
E/s1600/Mouth%2Bto%2Bstomach.jpg

The Mechanism of Swallowing

Oral Phase
Voluntary Phase
Hard palate compresses bolus
Tongue forces bolus into oropharynx
Soft palate elevated

The Mechanism of Swallowing

Pharyngeal Phase
Bolus enters pharynx
Tactile receptors on palatal arches and uvula
stimulated by bolus
Swallowing center of medulla oblongata
receives information
Pharyngeal muscles stimulated to contract
Larynx elevates
Respiratory centers inhibited

The Mechanism of Swallowing

Esophageal Phase
Bolus enters esophagus
Bolus pushed to stomach by peristalsis
Cardiac sphincter muscles open
Bolus enters stomach

The Stomach
Functions:
Bulk storage of ingested food.
Mechanical breakdown of ingested food.
Disruption of chemical bonds in food.
Production of intrinsic factor (for vitamin
B12 absorption).

The Stomach

The Stomach
Histology
Epithelium simple columnar with goblet
cells
Gastric pits open onto gastric surface
Gastric glands below gastric pits in fundus
and body

Stomach Mucosa Showing Gastric

Pits

Gastric Glands
Consist of:
Parietal Cells
Intrinsic factor & HCl
Chief Cells Pepsinogen

Parietal Secretion Of HCl

Hydrochloric Acid
Functions:
Kills microbes.
Denatures proteins and inactivates most
enzymes in food.
Breaks down plant cell walls and
connective tissues in meat.
Provides an acidic environment for
activation and function of pepsin.

Chief Cells
Secrete pepsinogen
Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin in the
gastric lumen by HCl (pH 1.5 2.0)
Renin and Gastric Lipase produced in
infants

Pyloric glands
Produce:
Mucus
Hormones by Enteroendocrine cells
Gastrin by G cells stimulates parietal and chief
cells and promotes gastric mixing
Somatostatin by D cells inhibits gastrin release;
overridden by neural & hormonal stimuli

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Controlled by CNS
Regulated by short reflexes of the ENS in
wall of stomach
Regulated by hormones in the digestive
tract

Regulation of Gastric Activity

There are three phases of Gastric Control:
1. Cephalic Phase
2. Gastric Phase
3. Intestinal Phase
1. Cephalic Phase
-Begins before food enters the stomach, that is when we see, smell,
think or taste food.
2. Gastric Phase
-The presence of food in the stomach stimulates gastric secretions.

3. Intestinal Phase
-Distension and presence of protein fragments in the
duodenum trigger the release of gastrin.

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Cephalic Phase
Directed by CNS (Medulla)
Lasts one minute
Neural output via PNS and vagus nerves innervate
submucosal plexus
Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers innervate
mucous cells, chief cells, parietal cells and G cells
Gastric juice production accelerates (500ml/hr)
(Phase affected by emotional states)

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Gastric Phase
Initiated by:
stomach distension
increased pH in stomach and
undigested proteins in stomach

3 4 hours

Mechanisms of theGastric Phase

Neural Response
Stretch receptors and chemoreceptors
stimulated
Short reflexes triggered in submucosal and
myenteric plexuses
Postganglionic fibers leaving submucosal
plexus stimulate the release of Ach which
stimulates chief and parietal cells
Myenteric plexus stimulation produce mixing
waves

Mechanisms of Gastric Phase

Hormonal Response
Neural stimulation and the presence of
peptides and amino acids stimulate Gastrin
secretion
Gastrin accelerates parietal and chief cell
secretion rates
Gastrin stimulates gastric motility

Mechanisms of Gastric Phase

Local Response
Distention of gastric wall stimulates the
release of histamine in the lamina propria
Histamine binds to receptors on parietal cells

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Intestinal phase
Neural Responses
Chyme leaves the stomach relieving stomach
distension
Stretch and chemo- receptors in duodenum
stimulated by the presence of chyme
Enterogastric reflex
inhibits central and local stimulation of gastrin production
& gastric contractions
stimulates contraction of the pyloric sphincter

Local reflexes stimulate mucus production at the

duodenum

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Intestinal phase
Hormonal Responses
Cholecystokinin (CCK) secreted when lipids &
carbohydrates enter the duodenum
CCK inhibits acid and pepsin secretion;

Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) secreted when

lipids and carbohydrates enter the duodenum
GIP targets the pancreas and inhibits gastric
secretion and reduces rate and force of gastric
contractions

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Intestinal phase
Hormonal Responses
Secretin secreted when pH drops below 4.5
Secretin inhibits parietal and chief cell activity
Stimulates production of bicarbonate ions by the
pancreas and bile by the liver

 High fat, high protein meals slow gastric

emptying
Large, low fat, low protein, wine and
caffeine increases gastric emptying
Wine and caffeine increases gastric
secretion and motility

Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach

Proteins break down in the presence of pepsin to form
polypeptides.
Carbohydrate and lipid digestion continue until pH
throughout the material in the stomach falls below 4.5.
The only substances absorbed by the stomach are fatsoluble (incl. alcohol and aspirin) in small amounts.

NB: The stomach lacks the absorptive surfaces

contained in the small intestine.

Small Intestines and Accessory Organs

Extend from the pyloric sphincter to the cecum.
(Approx. 2.5 cm in diameter & 7m long)
Consists of three parts:
DUODENUM
JEJUNUM
ILEUM

NB
-9O% of absorption occurs in the small intestine.

Small Intestines and Accessory Organs

Enzymes are secreted into the small intestines
by the pancreas.
These are:
Pancreatic Amylase
Pancreatic Lipase
Nucleases
Proteolytic Enzymes
The liver and gall bladder secrete bile into the
small intestine.

Histology
Structural features of the Small intestines:
Plicae circulares
Villi
Microvilli

Components of the villi:

Lamina propria has capillaries that transport gases and
absorbed nutrients to the hepatic portal vein.
Lacteals transport substances too large to diffuse into the
bloodstream eg.Chylomicrons (protein-lipid packages).
Muscularis mucosae and smooth muscle of intestinal villi
move villi for maximum absorption of nutrients and squeeze
lacteals therefore moving lymph out of villi

Histology
Structure of Duodenum, Jejunum and
ileum.
Duodenum- has few plicae, numerous villi and
mucous glands
Jejunum- has plicae and villi (prominent in its
proximal portion).
ileum- has scattered villi but lacks plicae
altogether; lymphoid tissue (Peyers Patches)
at terminal portion

Intestinal Secretions
Intestinal secretions contain
Mucus
Brush border enzymes

Enterokinase
Maltase
Sucrase
Lactase
Dipeptidases
Peptidases

Intestinal Secretions
Intestinal secretion is controlled by
Local reflexes
Enterocrinin secretion
Parasympathetic stimulation

Intestinal Movements
Myenteric reflexes stimulate weak
peristaltic contractions
PNS stimulation accelerates peristalsis
and segmentation
Affects short segments of small intestine

Intestinal Movements
Two reflexes coordinate activities along
the entire length of the small intestine:
Triggered by stretch receptors in stomach
Gastroenteric reflex stimulates motility and
secretion along entire small intestine
Gastroileal reflex stimulates relaxation of ileocecal
valve; enhanced by gastrin secretion

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Pancreas
When acidic chyme enters the duodenum,
pancreatic juice via the pancreatic duct enters as
well.
Functions of the pancreas
Endocrine cells of the pancreatic islets
produce insulin and glucagon
Exocrine cells including acinar and epithelial
duct cells produce pancreatic juice

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Pancreas
Pancreatic juice consists of:
Sodium bicarbonate (pH 7.5 -8.8)
Buffer solution secreted when chyme enters duodenum
and secretin produced

PANCREATIC ENZYMES:
CHOLECYSTOKININ stimulates their production

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Pancreas
PANCREATIC ENZYMES
Pancreatic amylase carbohydrates to triand di- saccharides
Pancreatic lipase lipids to fatty acids and
monoglycerides
Nucleases nucleic acids to simple sugars
and nitrogen bases

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Pancreas
PANCREATIC ENZYMES (Proteolytic enzymes)
Trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase
and proelastase

In the duodenum enterokinase converts

trypsinogen to trypsin
Trypsin activates the other enzymes to
chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and
elastase
These enzymes produce dipeptides,
tripeptides and amino acids from proteins

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Liver
The liver has numerous functions which
may be categorised as:
Metabolic regulation
Carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid metabolism,
waste product removal, vitamin & mineral storage,
drug inactivation

Hematological regulation
Bile production

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Liver
Functions of Bile
Emulsification of fats increase surface area
for pancreatic lipase to work
Facilitates absorption of lipids by intestinal
epithelium

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Gallbladder
Stores bile
Concentrates bile

End of Digestion in Small Intestines

Brush border Enzymes complete digestion
Maltase maltose to glucose
Sucrase sucrose to glucose and fructose
Lactase lactose to glucose and galactose
Dipeptidases and Peptidases dipeptides
and tripeptides to amino acids

Absorption in the Small Intestine

Substances absorbed in the small intestines are:
Monosaccharides-absorbed by the duodenum
and upper jejunum; co-transport with sodium
Amino Acids- absorbed by the end of the
jejunum; co-transport with sodium and
facilitated diffusion

Absorption in the Small Intestine

Fatty acids and Monoglycerides
absorbed in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum
diffusion in water-soluble micelles which diffuse
into epithelial cells of villi
Fatty acids and monoglycerides combine to form
triglycerides
Triglycerides combine with cholesterol, lipoprotein
and phospholipids to form chylomicrons
Chylomicrons then diffuse into lacteals

Absorption in the Small Intestine

Vitamins
- C and B by passive diffusion
- B12 with intrinsic factor active transport
- A,D,E & K with micelles

Large Intestine
Parts of the Large Intestine
Cecum
Colon - Ascending, Transverse,
Descending and Sigmoid
Rectum
Anal canal

Large Intestine
Simple columnar epithelium with goblet
cells
Mucus
Protects intestinal wall and holds fecal matter
together
Contains sodium bicarbonate that neutralizes
acids produced by bacterial metabolism

Large Intestine
Produces large amounts of water and
electrolytes when irritated
Movement of fecal matter is due to
peristalsis, segmentation and contraction
of longitudinal muscle bands