The Statistical Imagination

Chapter 3. Charts and Graphs:

A Picture Says a Thousand
Words

2008 McGraw-Hill

Graphs and Charts: Pictorial

Presentation of Data
Graphs and charts provide a
direct sense of proportion
With graphics, visible spatial
features substitute for abstract
numbers

2008 McGraw-Hill

Types of Graphs and Levels of

Measurement
For nominal/ordinal variables,
use pie charts and bar charts
For interval/ratio variables, use
histograms and polygons (line
graphs)

2008 McGraw-Hill

Graphing and Table Guidelines

Choose a design based on a variables
level of measurement, study objectives,
and targeted audience
A good graphic simplifies, not complicates
A good graph is self-explanatory
Produce rough drafts and seek advice
Adhere to inclusiveness and exclusiveness
Provide a descriptive title and indicate the
source of material
Scrutinize computer generated graphics
2008 McGraw-Hill

Pie Chart
A circle that is dissected or sliced from
its center point with each slice
representing the proportional
frequency of a category of a
nominal/ordinal variable
Pie charts are especially useful for
conveying a sense of fairness, relative
size, or inequality among categories
2008 McGraw-Hill

Constructing a Pie Chart

To determine the correct size of a
slice, multiply a categorys
proportional frequency by 360
degrees
Use a protractor to cut the pie
Percentages are placed on the pie
chart for the sake of clarity
2008 McGraw-Hill

Interpreting a Pie Chart

Focus on the largest pie slice (i.e., the
category with the highest percentage
frequency) and comment on it
Compare slices and comment on stark
differences in sizes
Compare the results to other
populations
Summarize with a main point
2008 McGraw-Hill

Bar Chart
A series of vertical or horizontal bars
with the length of a bar representing
the percentage frequency of a
category of a nominal/ordinal variable
Bar charts are especially useful for
conveying a sense of competition
among categories
2008 McGraw-Hill

Constructing a Bar Chart

Construct on two axes, the abscissa (horizontal)
and the ordinate (vertical)
Categories of a variable are situated on one axis,
and markings for percentages on the other
To determine the correct bar size for a category,
compute its percentage frequency
To compare several groups, use clustered bar
charts

2008 McGraw-Hill

Interpreting a Bar Chart

Observe the heights of bars and
comment on the tallest (i.e., the
category with the highest frequency)
Compare and rank heights of bars and
comment on stark differences
Compare the results to other
populations
Summarize with a main point
2008 McGraw-Hill

Frequency Histogram
A 90-degree plot presenting the
scores of an interval/ratio variable
along the horizontal axis and the
frequency of each score in a column
parallel to the vertical axis
Similar to bar charts except columns
may touch to account for real limits
and the principle of inclusiveness
2008 McGraw-Hill

Constructing a Histogram
Work from a frequency distribution and
calculate the real limits of each score of X.
Draw the horizontal axis and label for X.
Draw the vertical axis and label for
frequency of cases
Draw the columns with the height of a
column representing the frequency of
scores for a given real limit span of X
The width of each column of the histogram
will be the same
2008 McGraw-Hill

Interpreting Frequency
Histograms
Observe the heights of columns and
note the tallest (i.e., the score with the
highest frequency)
Look for clusters of columns and a
central tendency
Look for symmetry (balance) in the
shape of the histogram
Summarize with a main point
2008 McGraw-Hill

Frequency Polygon
A 90-degree plot with interval/ratio scores plotted
on the horizontal axis and score frequencies
depicted by the heights of dots located above
scores and connected by straight lines
Portrays a sense of trend or movement
Especially useful for comparing two or more
samples

2008 McGraw-Hill

Constructing a Polygon
Work from a frequency distribution
Draw the horizontal axis and label for the
variable X. Draw the vertical axis and label
for the frequency or percentage of cases
Place dots above the scores X at the
height of the frequency or percentage
frequency
Connect the dots with straight lines, closing
the ends to the baseline of the lower and
upper real limits of the distribution
2008 McGraw-Hill

Interpreting Polygons
Look for peaks and comment on the tallest
(i.e., the score with the highest frequency)
Look for expanse of space under the line and
for peaks and valleys
Look for a central tendency
Look for symmetry (balance) in the shape of
the line graph
Summarize with a main point
2008 McGraw-Hill

Polygons with Two

or More Groups
When two or more groups (populations,
samples, or subsamples) are plotted,
compare their peaks and shapes
Plot percentage frequencies to adjust for
differing group sizes
Look for contrasting central tendencies
among the groups
Note the presence or lack of overlap in the
polygons of any two groups
2008 McGraw-Hill

Graphs Reveal Outliers

For a distribution of scores, an
outlier (or deviant) score is one that
stands out as markedly different
from the others
With a trained eye, outliers may be
noted in a frequency distribution,
but are easily detected with graphs
2008 McGraw-Hill

Statistical Follies
Graphs may be intentionally or
mistakenly distorted
Make sure any claimed differences in
scores is real and not simply a
distortion of the graphic
Use computer graphics carefully and
edit output. Rely on the computer as
simply a drawing tool
2008 McGraw-Hill