Basic Aircraft System and

Structure
Part Two

Chapter three : Aircraft parts and their functions

Chapter-6 Forces Acting on an Airplane during Flight

Forces acting on the aircraft

An aircraft has four forces acting on it.

LIFT The upward force

WEIGHT Gravity the downward force

THRUST The forward force.

DRAG The rearward force.

Conti...
lift opposes weight and thrust opposes drag. Drag
and weight are natural forces to be found in
anything to be lifted from the ground and moved
through the air. Thrust and lift are artificially created
forces that allow the Aircraft to fly by overcoming
the natural forces of Drag and Weight. The engine
and propeller produce the Thrust to overcome the
Drag. The wing produces Lift to overcome the
Weight or gravity. During straight and level flight at
a constant speed:
LIFT = WEIGHT and THRUST =

DRAG

Aerofoil
An Aerofoil is a device that gets a reaction
from air moving over its surface. When it
is moved through the air it produces lift.
Wings, horizontal and vertical tail surfaces
and propellers are all examples of aerofoils.
A cross sectional view of an aerofoil

 The forward part of an Aerofoil is blunt and

rounded and is called the leading edge.
The aft part is narrow and tapered and is
called the trailing edge.
Angle of attack
The angle of attack is the acute angle
between the Chord Line of an aerofoil and
therelative wind.

Axis of Rotation
Intersect at the centre of gravity are
imaginary lines about which the aircraft
may rotate about in flight.

Centre of Pressure
Is the imaginary point where the resultant of all
aerodynamic forces of an aerofoil is
considered to be concentrated at any given time.

Chord Line
The Chord Line - is the straight line between the
centre of the leading edge and the
centre of the trailing edge.

DRAG
Is the force which tends to resist an aerofoils
passage through the air. Drag is always parallel
to the relative wind and perpendicular to lift.
Drag varies as the square of the velocity.

Effect of Angle of Attack on Lift and drag

Increasing the angle of attack increases both
the lift and drag up to a point where the wing
stalls.

Effect of Airspeed on Lift and Drag

Increasing the speed of the air passing
over the wing increases the lift and drag.
This is because of the increased relative
wind on the lower surface produces a
greater positive pressure, as well as the
increased speed of the relative wind over
the upper surface produces a lower
pressure above the wing which sucks it up

Effect of Aerofoil Shape on Lift and drag

By increasing the upper curvature of the
aerofoil (up to a point) the lift produced will
be increased. Thus, a wing designed for high
lift will have a deep wing section and possibly
a concave lower surface.
Factors affecting Lift and Drag
Many factors alter the lift and drag e.g. aerofoil
shape, wing shape, air speed over
the wing, angle of attack, wing area and air
density.

LIFT
Is the force produced by an aerofoil perpendicular
to the relative wind. (The vertical component of the
resultant vector is that which opposes gravity).

Moist Air - is less dense than dry air. Performance

decreases in moist air.
Pressure - An increase in altitude brings a
decrease in pressure that makes it less dense air.
In order to produce the same lift at altitude, the air
speed over the wings or the angle of attack must
be increased. Take-offs from an airfield at a high
altitude require a much longer take-off distance.

The three axis

The Longitudinal Axis:This is an imaginary
line running length wise through the aircraft
from forward tip to backward tip.
Movement around this axis is called rolling
and it is achieved with the ailerons
The Vertical Axis
This is a line through the center of gravity
going downwards and at right angles to the
longitudinal axis.
Movement around this axis is called
yawing and is achieved with the rudder.

The Lateral Axis

This is sometimes called the pitch axis. This
is the line through the centre of gravity and
running span wise from wing tip to wingtip
and at right angles to the longitudinal axis.
Movement around this axis is called
pitching and is achieved with the elevators

Control Surfaces
Ailerons are located at the trailing edge of
the wings, and are movable surfaces that
control movement about the longitudinal
axis.

Elevators
The Elevators control movement about the
lateral axis, this is called pitch. The
elevators are hinged to allow the surface to
swing up and down.
Changing the position of the elevators alters
the camber of the aerofoil and this
increases or decreases the lift it produces.

Rudder
The rudder surface controls movement of the
aircraft light about its vertical axis.
This is called yaw. The rudder is a hinged surface
which swings from left to right and is attached to
the vertical stabiliser or fin. Its action is similar to
the elevator except that it produces movement in
the yaw axis, swinging the nose from side to side.
Application of the left pedal starts a yaw to the left
and the right pedal to the right.

Spoilers
Spoilers are located in the outer third of
each wing. When deployed a spoiler kills
the lift over that portion of the wing while
the other wing retains full lift and induces
roll.

AIRCRAFT BASIC CONSTRUCTION

The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of
the following five major units:
1. Fuselage
2. Wings
3. Stabilizers
4. Flight controls surfaces
5. Landing gear

Conti...
A rotary-wing aircraft consists of the following
four major units:
1. Fuselage
2. Landing gear
3. Main rotor assembly
4. Tail rotor assembly

 The primary factors to consider in aircraft

structures are strength, weight, and reliability.
These actors determine the requirements to be
met by material used to construct or repair the
aircraft.
Airframes must be strong and light in weight.

STRUCTURAL STRESS

Many forces and structural stresses act on an

aircraft when it is flying and when it is static.
When it is static, the force of gravity produces
weight, which is supported by the landing gear.
The landing gear absorbs the forces imposed on
the aircraft by takeoffs and landings.
During flight, any maneuver that causes
acceleration or deceleration increases the forces and
stresses on the wings and fuselage.

TENSION
Tension is defined as pull. It is the stress of
stretching an object or pulling at its ends.
Tension is the resistance to pulling apart or
stretching produced by two forces pulling in
opposite directions along the same straight
line. For example, an elevator control cable is
in additional tension when the pilot moves
the control column.

COMPRESSION
If forces acting on an aircraft move toward each
other to squeeze the material, the stress is called
compression. Tension is pull, and compression is
push. Compression is the resistance to crushing
produced by two forces pushing toward each other
in the same straight line. For example, when an
airplane is on the ground, the landing gear struts are
under a constant compression stress.

Conti...

SHEAR
Cutting a piece of paper with scissors is an example
of a shearing action. In an aircraft structure, shear is a
stress exerted when two pieces of fastened material
tend to separate. Shear stress is the outcome of
sliding one part over the other in opposite directions.
The rivets and bolts of an aircraft experience both
shear and tension stresses.

BENDING
Bending is a combination of tension and
compression. For example, when bending a piece
of tubing, the upper portion stretches (tension)
and the lower portion crushes together compression).
The wing spars of an aircraft in flight are subject to
bending stresses.

BENDING
Bending is a combination of tension and
compression. For example, when bending a
piece of tubing, the upper portion stretches
(tension) and the lower portion crushes together
(compression).
The wing spars of an aircraft in flight are
subject to bending stresses.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
METALLIC MATERIALS
The most common metals used in aircraft
construction are aluminum, magnesium,
titanium, steel, and their alloys.

Alloys
An alloy is composed of two or more metals. The
metal present in the alloy in the largest amount is called
the base metal. All other metals added to the base metal
are called alloying elements. Adding the alloying
elements may result in a change in the properties of the
base metal. For example, pure aluminum is relatively
soft and weak. However, adding small amounts or
copper, manganese, and magnesium will increase
aluminum's strength many times. Heat treatment can
increase or decrease an alloy's strength and hardness.
Alloys are important to the aircraft industry.

Aluminum
Aluminum alloys are widely used in modern
aircraft construction. Aluminum alloys are
valuable because they have a high strength-toweight ratio.
Aluminum alloys are corrosion resistant and
comparatively easy to fabricate. The outstanding
characteristic of aluminum is its lightweight.

Magnesium
Magnesium is the world's lightest structural
metal.
It is a silvery-white material that weighs twothirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium is
used to make helicopters.
Magnesium's low resistance to corrosion has
limited its use in conventional aircraft.

Titanium
Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosion
resistant metal.
Recent developments make titanium ideal for
applications where aluminum alloys are too
weak and stainless steel is too heavy.
Additionally, titanium is unaffected by long
exposure to seawater and marine atmosphere.

Steel Alloys
These steels contain small percentages of
carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, and
molybdenum.
Another type of steel used extensively is
stainless steel. Stainless steel resists corrosion
and is particularly valuable for use in or near
water.

NONMETALLIC MATERIALS
In addition to metals, various types of plastic
materials are found in aircraft construction. Some
these plastics include transparent plastic, reinforced
plastic, composite, and carbon-fiber materials.
Transparent Plastic
Transparent plastic is used in canopies,
windshields, and other transparent enclosures.

Reinforced Plastic
Reinforced plastic is used in the construction of
wingtips, stabilizer tips, antenna covers, andflight
controls.
Composite and Carbon Fiber Materials
High-performance aircraft require an extra high
strength-to-weight ratio material. Fabrication of
composite materials satisfies this special requirement.
Composite materials are constructed by using several
layers of bonding materials (graphite epoxy or boron
epoxy). These materials are mechanically fastened to
conventional substructures.

Chapter-8 Aircraft control systems

WhatisanAircraftControlSystem?

A control system is a collection of mechanical and

electronic equipment that allows an aircraft to fly
withexceptionalprecisionandreliability.
A control system consists of cockpit controls,
sensors, actuators (hydraulic, mechanical or
electrical)andcomputers.
Thedirectionalcontrolofafixedwingaircrafttakes
place around the lateral, longitudinal, and vertical
axes by means of flight control surfaces designed
tocreatemovementabouttheseaxes.

Thesecontroldevicesarehingedormovablesurfaces
throughwhichtheattitudeofanaircraftiscontrolled
during takeoff, flight, and landing. They are usually
dividedintotwomajorgroups:
1)primaryormainflightcontrolsurfacesand
2)secondaryorauxiliarycontrolsurfaces.

Primary Flight Control Surfaces: The primary flight control

surfacesonafixedwingaircraftinclude:
ailerons,elevators,andtherudder.

Secondary (Auxiliary) Control Surfaces:

There are several secondary flight control surfaces. Their
names, locations, and functions of those for most large
aircraftarelistedinTable:

HelicopterControlSystem
Thehelicopterisaflyingmachinewithuniqueflight
characteristics,uniquecontrolsystem.
Threeimportantcontrolhelicoptercontrolterms:
CollectivePitchControl
Cycliccontrol
Directional(yaw)control

I.CollectivePitchControl

The collective pitch control system includes

integrated throttle and main rotor collective pitch
control linkages.
The collective control is made by moving a lever
thatrisesupfromthecockpitfloortotheleftofthe
pilot'sseat,whichinturnraisesorlowerstheswash
plateonthemainrotorshaft,withouttiltingit.
This changes the pitch of the main rotor blades,
causing an increase or decrease in lift on the entire
rotor disc.
47

 Itputsacollectivecontrolinputintotherotorsystem,meaningthatitputs
either "all up", or "all down" control inputs in at one time through the
swashplate.
Itisalsoknownasthe"Stickcontrol.

48

II.CyclicPitchcontrol

The cyclic control is made by moving the control

stickthatrisesupfromthecockpitfloorbetweenthe
pilot's knees, and can be moved in all directions
otherthanupanddown.
Movement in any direction tilts the plane of the
main rotor blades in the same direction, thereby
causing the helicopter to move in that direction.
The cyclic stick is mounted on the cockpit floor in
front of the pilot's seat. The stick assembly is of
metal construction and includes a wheel brake lever
and lock.
49

 Another way to understand cyclic control is to

picture the rotor disc, which is the imaginary
circleabovethehelicoptercreatedbythespinning
blades,andtoimagineaplatesatflatontopofthe
cyclic stick. As the stick is leaned over in any
direction, so the angle of the plate changes very
slightly. This change of angle corresponds
directly to what is happening to the rotor disc at
the same time i.e. the side of the plate that is
higher represents the side of the rotor disc
generatingmorelift.

 Theleftandright,forwardandaftcontrol.Itputsinonecontrolinput
intotherotorsystematatimethroughtheswashplate.

51

III.DirectionalControlSystem
Attheveryrearofthehelicopter'stailboomisthetail
rotor a vertically mounted blade very similar to a
conventionalairplanepropeller.
Thistailrotorisusedtocontroltheyaw,orrotation,of
thehelicopter(i.e.whichwaythenoseispointing)and
toexplainthiswefirstneedtounderstandtorque.
Torque is a natural force that causes rotational
movement, and in a helicopter it is caused by the
spinning main rotor blades; when the blades are
spinning then the natural reaction to that is for the
fuselage of the helicopter to start spinning in the
oppositedirectiontotherotors.
52

53

 Asthetailrotorspinsitgeneratesthrustinexactlythesame
wayasanairplanepropellerdoes.
This sideways thrust prevents the helicopter fuselage from
tryingtospinagainstthemainrotor,andthepitchangleof
the tail rotor blades can be changed by the pilot to control
theamountofthrustproduced.
Increasing the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades will
increase the thrust, which in turn will push the helicopter
roundinthesamedirectionasthemainrotorblades.
Decreasing the pitch angle decreases the amount of thrust
and so the natural torque takes over, letting the helicopter
rotateintheoppositedirectiontothemainrotors.
54

Conti...
The pilot's pedals are mounted on a bracket on the cockpit floor in front
of the seat. Pedal adjusters are provided to adjust the pedal distance for
individual comfort. Microswitches are mounted in each sub-pedal
assembly to allow the pilot to introduce directional control inputs

55

Helicopter
Helicopter is a rotary-wing aircraft which is
consists of the following four major units:
1. Fuselage
2. Main rotor assembly
3. Landing gear
4. Tail rotor assembly

Fuselage
The fuselage holds the aircraft together and
accommodates passengers and cargo, as
appropriate.

Main rotor
The main rotor serves to provide lift and
propulsion to the helicopter.

Landing skids
The skids serve to stand the helicopter while
on the ground.

Tail rotor
The tail rotor prevents the helicopter from spinning as
well as turns the aircraft.
Cockpit
The cockpit, at the front end of the fuselage, is the
control and command centre, where the pilots sit and
all the instrumentation is located.

Cabin
The cabin serves to accommodate passengers and cargo.

Tail boom
The tail boom holds the tail rotor for stabilising the
aircraft.

Chapter-9 Aircraft Hydraulic Actuators and Supply

Circuit

Introduction
In an aircraft the hyraulic system
supply circuit consists mainly th
pump filter check valves accumulato
and the pressure relief valve on the
delivery side.
On the suction side of the pump,
there is the reservior along with its
pressurization circuit

There are three principles of plotting of

schematic diagrams
1. An actuator is included into two operating
independent HSs
Where IHS1; IHS2= independent hyrraulic
systems
DD= double distributor
A= Actuator
Here if one independent hydraulic system is
fault the actuator (goes on) its operation
with half of power( stablizer,aileron, rudder
actuators)

Such diagram is named as a HOT RESERVATION

2. A reservation with swithching actuator

from the main HS on . Such diagram is
named as cold reservation.
This system consists of
MHS= the main HS
RHS= reserved HS
SS= Selector switch
D= distributor
AC= Actuating cylinder

3. The system which includes one

actuator and one independent hydaulic
system. If the HS faults aircraft system
losses its own ablity to carry out its
functions.

Hydaulic System Supply

Circuit
Purpose of supply circuit should meet the
following requirements:
1. sufficient power and energy capacity
2.filteration of working fluids
3.limitation of working pressure in the systemm
by a perset level
4.unloading of pump when the consumers are
not engaged
.