Chapter4

IndividualsinSchools:
Motivation

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

Individualsaremotivatedbytheir:
Needs
Beliefs
Goals

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

Maslows Theory of Needs

Assumptions:
1.
Individual needs are universal and arranged in a hierarchy.
2.
Unfilled needs lead individuals to focus on those needs.
3.
Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher level-needs
become strong motivators.
Needs:
1.
Physiological Needs (Air, Food, Sleep, etc.)
2.
Safety and Security Needs (Protection against danger and threat)
3.
Belongingness Needs (Belonging to groups, having friends, etc.)
4.
Esteem Needs (Self-respect and the respect of others)
5.
Self-Actualization Needs (Being all you can me; finding potential)

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Needs
MaslowsHierarchyofNeeds

( Hoy,2003)

Basicsetofhumanneedsarrangedinahierarchical
order

Level1:PhysiologicalNeeds

Level2:SafetyandSecurity

Level3:Belonging,Love,andSocialActivities

Level4:Esteem

Level5:Selfactualizationorselffulfillment
Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Needs
II

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory:

Two Types of Needs

Assumptions:
1.
2.

3.
4.

( Hoy,2003)

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two separate factors, not opposites.

Factors that produce satisfaction are different from those that promote
dissatisfaction.
Motivators are generally intrinsic factors such as achievement and
the work itself.
Hygiene factors are generally extrinsic factors such as salary and
working conditions.
Motivators are higher level needs and tend to promote satisfaction.
Hygiene factors are lower level needs and tend to promote
dissatisfaction

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Needs
Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Hygienes

Interpersonal relations (with subordinates)

Interpersonal relations (with peers)
Supervision (technical)
Policy and administration
Working conditions
Personal life

Dissatisfaction
( Hoy,2003)

Motivators

Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement

Satisfaction
Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Needs
III McClellands Achievement-Need Theory
Assumptions:
1.
2.

The prospect of achievement motivates more than extrinsic rewards.

Motives are learned and when people learn to value achievement, it
becomes a strong motivator.
To instill motivation:
Place people in situation where they can succeed.
Emphasize setting reasonable and achievable goals.
Get people to take responsibility for their actions.
Provide clear and constructive feedback on performance.
3.
When achievement motivation is high, then individuals set high, but
achievable goals, value and use feedback, have a single-minded
absorption with task accomplishment.
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Needs
IV Need for Autonomy
1.

Individuals have a need to have a choice in what they do and how they
do it; they need to be in charge of their own lives.

2.

The need for autonomy is a higher level need--likely above self-esteem

and below self actualization in Maslows hierarchy.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Beliefs
V Weiners Attribution Theory: Beliefs about Cause
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals naturally seek understandings of why thing happen the way they do.
2.
Individuals make causal connections, i.e., they create knowledge.
3.
Once knowledge is created, they use it to manage their behavior.
4.
The basic causes of achievement are ability, effort, difficulty of the task, and luck.
5.
Key questions:
Causal: What are causes of outcomes?
Locus: Is the cause internal (ability & effort) or external (difficulty & luck)?
Stability: Is the cause fixed or does it change?
Responsibility (Controllable): Can I control the cause?
6.
Maximize motivation by knowing what causes outcomes, knowing the cause in
internal and controllable, and knowing cause is amenable to change.
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Beliefs
Beliefs continued

Ability
Stableview
Abilityisuncontrollableandunabletochange
Setperformancegoalsthatprotecttheirselfesteem
Incrementalview
Abilityisunstablebutcontrollable
Expandingreservoirofknowledgeandskills
Hardworkandpersistencecanpayoff
Setperformancegoalstogaugeprogress
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Beliefs
VI Greenbergs Equity Theory: Beliefs about
Fairness
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals care about being treated fairly.
2.
People make social comparisons regarding fair and equitable
treatment.
3.
Perceived inequity tends to reduce motivation.
4.
Individuals attempt to reduce feelings of inequity by:
They try to get increased benefits--get a raise.
They try to leave--quit and find another job.
They reduce their inputs--expend less effort on the job.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

Principles of Organizational Justice:

Equity Principle

--Rewards should be proportional to contributions.

Perception Principle

--Individual perceptions of fairness define justice.

The Voice Principal

--Participation in decision enhances fairness.

Interpersonal Justice Principle

--Dignified and respectful treatment promotes fairness

Consistency Principle

--Consistently fair behavior promotes a sense of justice

Egalitarian Principle

--Self interest should be subordinated to good of whole

Correction Principle

--Faulty decisions should be quickly corrected.

Accuracy Principle

--Decisions should be anchored in accurate information

Representative Principle

--Decisions should represent those concerned.

Ethical Principle

--Prevailing moral & ethical standards should prevail.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Beliefs
VII Vrooms Expectancy Theory (Beliefs about
Outcomes)
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.
2.
People evaluate subjectively the expected value of outcomes.
3.
Forces in the individual and environment combine to determine
individual values and attitudes.
4.
Motivation is a function of the interaction of expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence.
Expectancy: Can I perform the task?
Instrumentality: If I succeed what are the consequences?
Valence: How strongly do I value the consequences?
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Beliefs
Expectancy
Belief that I can
accomplish
the task

Instrumentality
Belief that good
performance will
be noticed and
rewarded

Valence
An assessment of
the attractiveness
or value of
the rewards

( Hoy,2003)

Force of
Motivation

According to expectancy theory,

work
motivation is strongly influenced by
the
interaction of three factors:
expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence.

M = f (E x I x V)

Expectancy
Theory
Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Beliefs
VIII Banduras Self-Efficacy Theory: Beliefs about
Capacity
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.
2.
The extent to which people believe that they have the capacity to execute a
course of action that is required to succeed is their self-efficacy, their self
efficacy, motivates behavior.
3.
Self-efficacy affects individual choice:
Choose activities in which you will succeed and avoid those in which you believe
you will fail.
4.
Strong self-efficacy increases effort at the task.
5.
Strong self-efficacy increases persistence.
6.
Strong self-efficacy increases resilience.
7.
Sources of strong self-efficacy:
Mastery Experiences
Modeling (Vicarious experiences)
Verbal Persuasion
Physiological State.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

A Model of Teacher Efficacy

Analysis of
the
Teaching Task
Sources of
Efficacy
Physiological Cues
Verbal Persuasion
Vicarious
Experience
(Modeling)
Mastery Experience

Cognitive
Processin
g
Assessment
of
Teaching
Competence

Teache
r
Efficac
y

Consequences of
Teacher Efficacy
Performance

( Hoy,2003)

Effort
Persistence
Success

Hoy,2008

BuildingSelfEfficacyinSchools
Administratorsshouldtrytoorchestratethefollowing:

Secureinstructionaltimeandresourcesforteacherstoplan,collaborate,andresearch,tobuild
MASTERYEXPERIENCES.

Allowteacherstohaveaccesstomodels,intheformofconferences,workshops,visitations,
etc.,forcultivationofVICARIOUSEXPERIENCES.

Fosteremphasisonprofessionalismandreflectiveteaching,andrewardthosewhocollaborate
andsharefeedback,toincreaseSOCIALPERSUASION.

Attendtoteachersaffectivestatesandprovideencouragementduringtimesoffrustration.
Frameperformanceasafunctionofacquiredskillratherthaninherentcapability.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:Goals
IX Lockes Goal Theory
Assumptions:
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

If goals are accepted by individuals, they are strong motivators.

Why?
Goals focus attention.
Goals mobilize efforts.
Goals enhance persistence.
Goals promote the development of strategies for success.
Specific goals are generally more effective than general goals.
Difficult, but attainable goals are more effective than easy ones.
To be effective, goals must be embraced by individual.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation:GoalSetting
Characteristics
of
Effective Goals
Specific
Challenging
Attainable
Embraced

Goal
Mechanisms
Focus attention
Mobilize effort
Enhance
persistence
Develop specific
task
strategies

Performance

Feedback

Actual versus Desired Behavior

Goal-setting Theory
( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

TheoriesofMotivation

IX Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation comes from such factors as interest and
curiosity in the task itself.
Extrinsic motivation comes from incentives and disincentives to
act, for example, rewards and punishments.
The key difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is
the reason for acting--internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic).
The dichotomy between the two, however, is a bit too simple
because what starts as extrinsic motivation (studying to get good
grades) may become intrinsic as the individual becomes curious
about the learning at hand.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

Summary&Review
Needs Theory

Suggest that people work hard when:

Lower-order needs are metphysiological, safety, and belongingness needs.
Higher-order needs present the challengeesteem and self-actualization needs.

Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Suggests that:
Unmet lower-level needs produce dissatisfaction with the job.
Gratified higher-level needs produce job satisfaction.

Goal-Setting Theory

Suggests that people work hard when:

They have realistic, specific, and challenging goals.
They are committed to the goals.
They receive feedback about progress toward the goals.

Attribution Theory

Suggests that people work hard when they believe that causes for success are:
Internaldue to ability and effort.
Not fixedeffort, for example, can be varied from one situation to another.
Controllablecauses can be controlled by hard work, using proper strategy, etc.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008

Summary&Review
Equity Theory

Suggests that people work hard when they have been fairly treated and:
They have been given the rewards they deserve.
The rewards have been allocated fairly.
They have been treated with respect and courtesy.

Expectancy Theory

Suggests that people work hard when:

They believe extra effort will improve performance.
Good performance will be noticed and rewarded.
The rewards are valued.

Self-Efficacy Theory

Suggests that people work hard when:

They believe they have the capabilities to be successful.
They believe that the task is not too difficult.
They have had success at completing their tasks.
They have good models of success.

( Hoy,2003)

Hoy,2008