Semiconductor Diode

APPLICATIONS
Engr. Aileen F. Villamonte, ECE

Load-line Analysis
Any applied load has an important

impact on the point or region of

operation of a device.
Graphically, a line, representing the
applied load, can be drawn on the
characteristics of the device.
The intersection of the line and the
characteristics is the systems point of
operation.

Load-line Analysis
Series-diode Network/Circuit

By KVL on network:

Series-diode characteristic

Setting VD and ID = 0:

Load-line Analysis

Load-line Analysis
Note that the Q-point can also be found by

solving simultaneously the network equation

and Shockleys equation, but it will be
complex mathematical computation

Example: For the series diode configuration

that follows, find the Q-point values and the

voltage across VR by employing the diode
characteristics also shown in the next figure.

Load-line Analysis

Load-line Analysis

Load-line Analysis
Example: Repeat the previous problem with R = 2

k.

Load-line Analysis
Repeat the first problem using the

approximate equivalent model for the silicon

semiconductor diode.

Load-line Analysis
Repeat the second problem using the

approximate equivalent model for the silicon

semiconductor diode.

Load-line Analysis
Repeat the first problem using the ideal diode

model.

Series Diode Configuration

(DC)
For the series diode configuration shown, find

VD, VR, and ID.

Series Diode Configuration

(DC)
Example: Repeat the previous problem with

the diode reversed.

Recall that an open circuit can have any
voltage across its terminals, but the current
is always 0 A; a short circuit has a 0-V drop
across its terminals, but the current is
limited only by the surrounding network.

Series Diode Configuration

(DC)
For the series diode configuration below,

determine VD, VR, and ID

Series Diode Configuration

(DC)

Series Diode Configuration

(DC)
Example: Determine Vo and ID for the

circuit shown.

Series Diode Configuration

(DC)
Example: For the circuit shown, find ID, VD2,

and Vo.

Series Diode Configuration

(DC)
Example: For the network below, find I, V1,

V2, and Vo.

Parallel and Series-Parallel

Diode Configurations (DC)
Example: For the network shown, find

Vo, I1, ID1, and ID2.

Parallel and Series-Parallel

Diode Configurations (DC)
Example: Find I for the network below.

Parallel and Series-Parallel

Diode Configurations (DC)
Example:

Determine Vo for
the network
shown.

Parallel and Series-Parallel

Diode Configurations (DC)
Example: Determine I1, I2, and ID2 for the

network below.

AND/OR Gates Using Diode

Circuits
Example: Evaluate the positive logic OR

gate shown.

AND/OR Gates Using Diode

Circuits
Example: Evaluate the positive logic

AND gate shown.

Diode Limiter or Clipper

Limiters or clippers are used to clip off

portions of signal voltages above or

below certain levels without distorting
the remaining part of the alternating
waveform.
The simplest form of diode clipper has
one resistor and one diode.
The positive or negative region of the
input signal is clipped off depending
on the orientation of the diode.

Diode Limiter or Clipper

A series clipper has its diode oriented in

series with the load.

A parallel clipper has its diode oriented in
a branch parallel to the load.
Notes in solving clipper circuits:
Make a mental sketch of the response of
the network based on the direction of the
diode and the applied voltage levels.
Determine the applied voltage
(transition voltage) that will cause a
change in state for the diode.

Diode Limiter or Clipper

It can be helpful to sketch the input signal

above the output and determine the output

at instantaneous values of the input.
Example: Determine the output voltage
waveform for the network shown below.

Diode Limiter or Clipper

Example: Repeat the previous problem

for the input waveform shown.

Diode Limiter or Clipper

Example: Determine Vo for the network

shown.

Diode Limiter or Clipper

Example: Repeat the previous problem

using a silicon diode.

Diode Clamper or DC
Restorer
Clampers add a dc level to an ac

voltage.
A clamping network must have a
capacitor, a diode, and a resistive
element.
The network may also have an
independent dc supply for an additional
shift.
The magnitude of the resistance and
capacitance must be considered such
that the time constant ( = RC) is large

Diode Clamper or DC
Restorer
For all practical purposes, it will be

assumed that the capacitor will fully

charge or discharge in five time constants.
Considerations:
The total swing of the output signal is
equal to the total swing of the input
signal.
Start the analysis by considering the
portion of the input signal that will
forward bias the diode.

Diode Clamper or DC
Restorer
During the period that the diode is

conducting, assume that the capacitor will

charge up instantaneously to a voltage level
determined by the network.
Assume that during the period when the
diode is in the off state the capacitor will
hold on to its established voltage level.
Throughout the analysis maintain a continual
awareness of the location and reference
polarity for the output voltage to ensure that
the proper levels for the output are obtained.

Diode Clamper or DC
Restorer
Determine the output voltage for the

network below using the indicated input.

Diode Clamper or DC
Restorer
Example: Repeat the previous example

using a silicon diode.

Rectifiers An Introduction
The ability of diodes to conduct current

in one direction and block current in the

other direction makes them vital
components in rectifier circuits.
Rectifiers convert ac voltage into dc
voltage.
They are present in all dc power
supplies that operate from an ac voltage
source.

The Basic DC Power Supply

The dc power supply converts the

standard 220 V, 60 Hz ac available at

wall outlets into a constant dc voltage.
The dc voltage produced by a power
supply powers all types of electronic
circuits (TV receivers, stereo systems,
VCRs, CD players, and most laboratory
equipment).
Rectifiers can be either half-wave or
full-wave type.

The Basic DC Power Supply

A rectifier converts the ac input

voltage into a pulsating dc voltage.

A filter eliminates the fluctuations in
the rectified voltage and produces a
relatively smooth dc voltage.
The regulator maintains a constant dc
voltage for variations in the input line
voltage or in the load.

The Basic DC Power Supply

A regulator may be a single device or a

more complex integrated circuit.

A load is a circuit or device for which
the power supply is producing the dc
voltage and load current.

The Basic DC Power Supply

Block diagram of a dc power supply with a

load:

Half-Wave Rectification
Block diagram of a rectifier (specifically a

half-wave rectifier):

Half-Wave Rectification
Output voltage during the positive

alternation:

Half-Wave Rectification
Output voltage during the NEGATIVE

alternation:

Half-Wave Rectification
Average value of the half-wave rectifier

output voltage:

Half-Wave Rectification
The average value of the half-wave

rectifier output voltage is the value that

will be measured on a dc voltmeter.
Example: What is the average value of
the half-wave rectified voltage shown?

Half-Wave Rectification
Example: What is the peak amplitude of a

half-wave voltage if its average value is 3 V?

Example: Draw the output voltages of the

rectifier for the indicated input voltage

below.

Transformer-Coupled Input
Voltage
A transformer is often used to couple

the ac input voltage from the source to

the rectifier.
Advantages of transformer coupling
include the following:
It allows the source voltage to be
stepped up or stepped down as needed.
The ac source is electrically isolated
from the rectifier, preventing a shock
hazard in the secondary circuit.

Transformer-Coupled Input
Voltage

Transformer Turns Ratio

= Nsec / Npri
= Vsec / Vpri
Example: What is the turns ratio of the

transformer in the next figure?

Determine the peak value of the output
voltage, the dc value of the rectifier
output and the PIV across the diode?

Transformer-Coupled Input
Voltage

Full-Wave Rectifiers
The full-wave rectifier is the most

commonly used type of rectifier in dc

power supplies.
Types: center-tapped, bridge
A full-wave rectifier allows
unidirectional (one-way) current through
the load during the entire input cycle
(360), unlike the half-wave rectifier that
allows current through the load only
during one-half of the cycle (180).

Full-Wave Rectifiers
A full-wave rectifier produces an output

voltage with a frequency twice the input

frequency that pulsates every half-cycle
of the input.

Full-Wave Rectifiers
The number of positive alternations that

make up the full-wave rectified voltage is

twice that of the half-wave voltage for the
same interval, thus making the average
value for a full-wave rectified sinusoidal
voltage twice that of the half-wave.

Example: Find the average value of the

signal shown in the next figure.

Full-Wave Rectifiers
Example: Solve the rectifier circuit in the

next figure. Show the voltage waveforms

across the load resistor. What is the
minimum PIV rating of each diode?

Full-Wave Rectifiers

Full-Wave Rectifiers
Example: Sketch the output waveform

for the circuit below ( = 1/9). What is

the dc output voltage? What PIV rating is
required for the diodes?

Power Supply Filter

A power supply filter ideally eliminates

fluctuations in the output voltage of a

half-wave or full-wave rectifier and
produces a constant-level dc voltage.
Filters are necessary because electronic
circuits require a constant source of dc
voltage and current to provide power
and biasing for proper operation.
Filters are implemented with capacitors.

Power Supply Filter

The standard 60 Hz ac power line voltage

must be converted to an approximately

constant dc voltage in most power supply
applications.
The 60 Hz pulsating dc output of a halfwave rectifier or the 120 Hz pulsating dc
output of a full-wave rectifier must be
filtered to reduce the large voltage
variations.
Ripple is the small amount of fluctuation in
the filter output voltage.

Power Supply Filter

Rectifier with a filter (exaggerated

output ripple is made for illustration

purposes)

Capacitor-Input Filter of a Half-Wave

Rectifier
Initial charging happens only once when

power is turned on.

Capacitor-Input Filter of a Half-Wave

Rectifier
The capacitor discharges through RL

after peak of positive alternation when

the diode is reverse-biased.
The said discharging occurs during the
solid blue curve portion of the input
voltage.

Capacitor-Input Filter of a Half-Wave

Rectifier
Recall that the capacitor can discharge

only through the load resistance at a

rate determined by the RLC time
constant (normally long compared to the
period of the input).
Recall also that the larger the time
constant, the less the capacitor will
discharge.

Capacitor-Input Filter of a Half-Wave

Rectifier
The capacitor charges back to peak of

input when the diode becomes forwardbiased, i.e. during the solid blue curve
portion of the input voltage.

Power Supply Filters

Ripple voltage is the variation in the

capacitor voltage due to the charging

and discharging.
Ripple is generally undesirable; the
smaller the ripple, the better the
filtering action.
Consequently, the larger the capacitor
value, the smaller the ripple for the
same input and load.

Power Supply Filters

Power Supply Filters

Half-wave ripple voltages (green curve):

Power Supply Filters

The ripple factor (r) is an indication of

the effectiveness of the filter:

Vr ( pp )
VDC

Power Supply Filters

The lower the ripple factor, the better

the filter.

Note that Vp(rect) is the unfiltered peak

rectified voltage and f is the frequency

of the full-wave rectified signal.

Power Supply Filters

Derivation of previous set of formulas

(refer to figure below):

Power Supply Filters

Power Supply Filters

Power Supply Filters

Example: Determine the ripple factor for

the filtered bridge rectifier with a load as

indicated.

Capacitor-Input Filter
Surge Current
Initially before the switch is closed, the

filter capacitor is uncharged.

Capacitor-Input Filter
Surge Current
At the instant the switch is closed, the

secondary voltage is connected to the

bridge and the uncharged capacitor
appears as a short, producing an initial
surge of current through the two
forward-biased diodes.
The worse-case situation occurs when
the switch is closed at a peak of the
secondary voltage producing a
maximum surge current.

Capacitor-Input Filter
Surge Current
A series resistor is needed to limit the

surge current since the surge current

could destroy the diodes.

Capacitor-Input Filter
Surge Current
The limiting resistor must be small

compared to RL.
The diodes must have a maximum
forward surge current rating (usually IFSM
on diode data sheets) such that they can
withstand the momentary surge of
current.

Capacitor-Input Filter
Surge Current
From the circuit, the minimum surge

resistor value can be calculated as

Rsurge

V p (sec) 1.4 V
I FSM

Zener Diode
One major application for zener diodes is a

type of voltage regulator for providing

stable reference voltages for use in power
supplies, voltmeters, and other
instruments.
A zener diode maintains a nearly constant
dc voltage under proper operating
conditions.
Schematic symbol:

Zener Diode
A zener diode is a silicon pn junction device

designed for operation in the reversebreakdown region.

The zener diodes breakdown voltage is set by
carefully controlling the doping level during
manufacture.
Recall that when a diode reaches reverse
breakdown, its voltage remains almost constant
even though the current changes drastically.
If a zener diode is forward-biased, it operates
the same as a rectifier diode.

Zener Diode

Zener Diode
Zener diodes are designed to operate in

reverse breakdown (avalanche or

zener).
Avalanche breakdown occurs in both
rectifier and zener diodes at a
sufficiently high reverse voltage.
Zener breakdown occurs in a zener
diode at low reverse voltages.
Zener diodes are heavily doped to
reduce the breakdown voltage, causing
a very thin depletion region, resulting to

Zener Diode
Near the zener breakdown voltage (VZ),

the field is intense enough to pull the

electrons from their valence bands and
create current.
Zener diodes with breakdown voltages of
less than approximately 5 V operate
predominately in zener breakdown while
those with breakdown voltages greater
than approximately 5 V operate
predominately in avalanche breakdown.

Zener Diode
Zeners are commercially available with

breakdown voltages of 1.8 V to 200 V with

specified tolerances from 1% to 20%.
The next figure shows the reverse portion
of a zener diodes characteristic curve.
Note that at the knee of the curve,
breakdown effect begins; the internal
zener resistance (zener impedance, Zz)
begins to decrease as the reverse current
increases rapidly.
From the bottom of the knee, the zener

Zener Diode

Note that VZ is usually specified at the zener test current

(IZT) and is designated VZT (nominal zener voltage).

Zener Diode
The temperature coefficient specifies

the percent change in zener voltage for

each degree centigrade change in
temperature.
Example: A 12-V zener diode with a
positive temperature coefficient of
0.01%/C will exhibit a 1.2 mV increase
in Vz when the junction temperature
increases one degree centigrade.

Zener Diode
VZ = VZTCT
VZ is the nominal voltage at 25C
TC is the temperature coefficient in

%/C
T is the change in temperature
VZ is the change in Zener potential
If the zener voltage increases with an

increase in temperature or decreases

with a decrease in temperature, the
zener diode is said to have a positive
temperature coefficient.

Zener Diode
In cases when the temperature

coefficient is expressed in mV/C, it can

be calculated as
VZ = TC T
An 8.2-V zener diode has a positive
temperature coefficient of 0.05%/C.
What is the zener voltage at 60C?

Zener Diode
Zener diodes are specified to operate at

a maximum power called the maximum

dc power dissipation, PD(max).
Examples: a 1N746 zener is rated at a
PD(max) of 500 mW; a 1N3305A is rated at
a PD(max) of 50 W
The dc power dissipation of a zener
diode is defined by PD = VZIZ.

Zener Diode
The maximum power dissipation of a zener

diode is typically specified for

temperatures at or below a certain value.
Above the specified temperature, the
maximum power dissipation is reduced
according to a derating factor expressed in
mW/C.
For the maximum derated power,
PD(derated) = PD(max) (mW/C)T

Zener Diode
Example: A zener diode has a maximum

power rating of 400 mW at 50C and a

derating factor of 3.2 mW/C. Determine
the maximum power the zener can
dissipate at a temperature of 90C.
A 50-W zener diode must be derated
with a derating factor of 0.5 W/C above
75C. Determine the maximum power it
can dissipate at 160C.

Zener Diode
Zener diodes are used generally in

regulator networks or as a reference

voltage to provide a level for
comparison against other voltages in a
network.

Zener Diode Regulator

The key feature of the zener diode is its

ability to keep the reverse voltage

across its terminals essentially constant.
A zener diode operating in breakdown
acts as a voltage regulator because it
maintains a nearly constant voltage
across its terminals over a specified
range of reverse-current values.

Zener Diode Regulator

A minimum value of reverse current, IZK,

must be maintained in order to keep the

diode in breakdown for voltage regulation.
When the reverse current is reduced below
the knee of the curve, the voltage decreases
drastically and regulation is lost.
A maximum current, IZM, is also considered,
above which the diode may be damaged
due to excessive power dissipation.

Zener Diode Regulator

Basically, a zener diode maintains a

nearly constant voltage across its

terminals for values of reverse current
ranging from IZK to IZM.

Zener Diode Regulator

Analysis guidelines:
Determine the state of the diode.
Substitute the appropriate model.
Determine the unknown quantities of

the network.

Zener Diode Regulator

Basic Zener regulator (case 1 fixed Vi

and RL)

Zener Diode Regulator

Determine the state of the diode by

removing it from the network and

calculating the voltage across the
resulting open circuit.

Zener Diode Regulator

If V is greater than or equal to VZ, the

Zener diode is on and the appropriate

equivalent model is substituted to the
diode.
If V is less than VZ, the diode is off,
resulting to an open-circuit equivalent.
The desired unknowns may now be
solved.

Zener Diode Regulator

Example: For the Zener diode network

below, find VL, VR, IZ, and PZ. Repeat the

problem with RL = 3 k.

Zener Diode Regulator

Case 2: Fixed Vi, Variable RL
A specific range of resistor values will

ensure the Zener in the on state due

to the offset voltage VZ.
For the minimum load resistance (of the
basic Zener regulator circuit) that will
turn the Zener diode on, calculate the
value of RL that will result in a load
voltage VL = VZ.

Zener Diode Regulator

Any load resistance value greater than

the obtained RL will ensure that the

Zener diode is in the on state and the
diode can be replaced by its VZ source
equivalent.
This minimum RL specifies the maximum
IL by ohms law.
Once the diode is in the on state, the
voltage across R remains fixed at VR = Vi
VZ.

Zener Diode Regulator

Consequently, the current through R

remains fixed at IR = VR/R.

The zener current defined by IZ = IR IL
results in a minimum value when IL is a
maximum and a maximum value when IL is
a minimum since IR is constant.
Since IZ is limited to IZM (rated maximum
zener current) as provided on the data
sheet, it affects the range RL (and IL):
ILmin = IR IZM

Zener Diode Regulator

The maximum load resistance will be

RLmax = VZ/Ilmin
Example: For the network at the next

slide, determine the range of RL and IL

that will result in the voltage across RL
maintained at 10 V. Determine the
maximum wattage rating of the diode.

Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diode Regulator

Case 3: Fixed RL, Variable Vi
Vi must be sufficiently large to turn the

Zener diode on (for fixed values of RL).

Zener Diode Regulator

The minimum turn-on voltage Vi is found

by

The maximum value of Vi is limited by

the maximum Zener current IZM:

Zener Diode Regulator

Find the range of Vi values that will

maintain the Zener diode (of the figure

below) in the on state.

Power Supply System

Application
Design a power supply with the following

specifications:
Input voltage: 220 V rms at 60 Hz
Output voltage (unregulated): 12 V dc 10%
Maximum ripple factor: 3%
Maximum load current (unregulated): 250 mA
Regulated DC output voltages of 1.5 V, 3 V,
4.5 V, 6 V, 7.5 V, and 9 V
Refer to the next figure for required
schematic diagram.

Power Supply System

Application

Miscellaneous TopicS

Voltage Multipliers
These devices use clamping action to

increase peak rectified voltages without

the necessity of increasing the
transformers voltage rating.
Common voltage multipliers have
multiplication factors of two, three, and
four.
Applications include high-voltage and
low-current devices such as TV
receivers.

Half-Wave Voltage Doubler

Voltage doubler is a voltage multiplier with

a multiplication factor of two.

Half-Wave Voltage Doubler

Under no-load condition, C2 remains

charged.

Half-Wave Voltage Doubler

If a load resistance is connected across

the output, C2 discharges slightly

through the load on the next positive
half-cycle and recharges again to
approximately 2Vp on the succeeding
negative half-cycle.
The resulting output is a half-wave,
capacitor-filtered voltage.
Obviously, PIV across each diode must
be at least 2Vp.

Full-Wave Voltage Doubler

Full-Wave Voltage Doubler

Voltage Tripler

Voltage Quadrupler

Note that in both the tripler and quadrupler

circuits, the PIV of each diode must at least

be 2Vp.

Voltage Multipliers
Example1: What must be the peak

voltage rating of the transformer

secondary for a voltage doubler that
produces an output of 200 V?
Example2: The output voltage of a

quadrupler is 620 V. What minimum PIV

rating must each diode have?